{"id":113,"date":"2015-10-29T16:17:13","date_gmt":"2015-10-29T16:17:13","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/?page_id=113"},"modified":"2024-03-25T07:48:53","modified_gmt":"2024-03-25T07:48:53","slug":"nuclear-reactions","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-reactions\/","title":{"rendered":"Nuclear Reactions"},"content":{"rendered":"<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-shadow-wrap sue-content-wrap sue-shadow-inline-no\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-shadow sue-shadow-style-vertical\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-panel\" data-url=\"\" data-target=\"self\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff;color:#333333;border-radius:0px;-moz-border-radius:0px;-webkit-border-radius:0px;box-shadow:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;border:1px solid #cccccc\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-panel-content sue-content-wrap\" style=\"padding:15px;text-align:left\">\n<div class=\"su-heading su-heading-style-modern-1-dark su-heading-align-left\" id=\"\" style=\"font-size:13px;margin-bottom:20px\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-heading-inner\">\n<h2>Article Summary &amp; FAQs<\/h2>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<h3>What is a nuclear reaction?<\/h3>\n<p>A\u00a0<strong>nuclear reaction<\/strong> is considered to be the process in which two atomic nuclei or subatomic particles interact to produce one or more new particles or <a title=\"Gamma Rays \/ Gamma Radiation\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/photon\/gamma-ray\/\">gamma rays<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3>Key Facts<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Perhaps the most notable nuclear reactions are the\u00a0<a title=\"Nuclear Fusion\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-fusion\/\">nuclear fusion reactions<\/a>\u00a0of light elements that power the energy production of stars and the Sun.<\/li>\n<li>The most notable\u00a0<strong>man-controlled nuclear reaction<\/strong>\u00a0is the\u00a0<a title=\"Nuclear Fission\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/fission\/\">fission reaction<\/a>\u00a0which occurs in\u00a0<strong>nuclear reactors<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>Classification of nuclear reactions is according to the time scale of these reactions.\n<ul>\n<li>In direct nuclear reactions,\u00a0a projectile and a target nucleus are within the range of nuclear forces for\u00a0<b>a very short time<\/b>\u00a0allowing for an\u00a0<b>interaction of a single nucleon only<\/b>.<\/li>\n<li>In compound nuclear reactions, a\u00a0projectile and a target nucleus are within the range of nuclear forces for the time allowing for a<b>\u00a0large number of interactions between nucleons<\/b>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>10B(n,alpha)7Li\u00a0<\/strong>is typical notation of nuclear reactions.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Energetics of nuclear reactions<\/strong>\u00a0is determined by the\u00a0<strong>Q-value<\/strong>\u00a0of that reaction.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:10px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What are main types of nuclear reactions?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\"><strong>What are main types of nuclear reactions?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Although the number of possible\u00a0<strong>nuclear reactions<\/strong>\u00a0is enormous, nuclear reactions can be sorted by types:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Elastic scattering<\/li>\n<li>Inelastic scattering<\/li>\n<li>Capture reactions<\/li>\n<li>Transfer reactions<\/li>\n<li>Fission reactions<\/li>\n<li>Fusion reactions<\/li>\n<li>Spallation reactions<\/li>\n<li>Nuclear decay<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What is typical example of a nuclear reaction?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<strong>What is a typical example of a nuclear reaction?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>10B(n, alpha)7Li<\/strong> is a typical nuclear reaction in nuclear reactors. This reaction is mainly used to control nuclear reactors because it absorbs neutrons without fission.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What is the main characteristics of nuclear reaction?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<strong>What are the main characteristics of nuclear reactions?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>In nuclear physics, the nuclear cross-section of a nucleus is commonly used to characterize the <strong>probability<\/strong>\u00a0that a\u00a0<a title=\"Nuclear Reactions\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-reactions\/\">nuclear reaction<\/a>\u00a0will occur. The cross-section is typically denoted\u00a0<strong>\u03c3<\/strong> and measured in units of the area [m<sup>2<\/sup>]. The standard unit for measuring a nuclear cross-section is the <strong>barn<\/strong>, equal to <strong>10<sup>\u221228<\/sup>\u00a0m\u00b2 or 10<sup>\u221224<\/sup>\u00a0cm\u00b2<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What is an exothermic nuclear reaction?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<strong>What is an exothermic nuclear reaction?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Q is positive. The positive Q reactions are said to be exothermic (or exergic). An exothermic nuclear reaction is a reaction in which there is an increase in the kinetic energy of the products. There is a net release of energy since the kinetic energy of the final state is greater than the kinetic energy of the initial state.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-youtube su-u-responsive-media-yes\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:10px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div>\n<p>A <strong>nuclear reaction<\/strong> is a process when two atomic nuclei or subatomic particles interact to produce one or more new particles or <a title=\"Gamma Rays \/ Gamma Radiation\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/photon\/gamma-ray\/\">gamma rays<\/a>. Thus, a <strong>nuclear reaction<\/strong> must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another. Sometimes if a nucleus interacts with another nucleus or particle without changing the nature of any nuclide, the process is referred to as a <a title=\"Elastic Scattering Cross-section\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/neutron-elastic-scattering\/elastic-scattering-cross-section\/\"><strong>nuclear scattering<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0rather than a nuclear reaction. Perhaps the most notable nuclear reactions are the <a title=\"Nuclear Fusion\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-fusion\/\">nuclear fusion reactions<\/a> of light elements that power the energy production of stars and the Sun. Natural nuclear reactions also occur in the interaction between cosmic rays and matter.<\/p>\n<p>The most notable <strong>man-controlled nuclear reaction<\/strong> is the <a title=\"Nuclear Fission\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/fission\/\">fission reaction<\/a> which occurs in <strong>nuclear reactors<\/strong>.\u00a0<a title=\"Nuclear Reactor\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/nuclear-reactor\/\">Nuclear reactors<\/a> are devices to initiate and control a <a title=\"Nuclear Fission Chain Reaction\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-fission-chain-reaction\/\">nuclear chain reaction<\/a>, but there are not only artificial devices. The world\u2019s first nuclear reactor operated about two billion years ago. The <strong>natural nuclear reactor<\/strong> formed at Oklo in Gabon, Africa, when a uranium-rich mineral deposit became flooded with groundwater that acted as a <a title=\"Neutron moderator\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/neutron-moderator\/\">neutron moderator<\/a>, and a nuclear chain reaction started. \u00a0These fission reactions were sustained for hundreds of thousands of years until a chain reaction could be supported no longer. This was confirmed by the existence of isotopes of the <a title=\"Fission Fragments\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/fission\/fission-fragments\/\">fission-product<\/a> gas xenon and by different ratios of <a title=\"Uranium 235\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/nuclear-fuel\/uranium\/uranium-235\/\">U-235<\/a>\/<a title=\"Uranium 238\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/nuclear-fuel\/uranium\/uranium-238\/\">U-238<\/a> (enrichment of natural uranium).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/nuclear-reactions-characteristics-min.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-large wp-image-33686\" src=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/nuclear-reactions-characteristics-min-1024x810.png\" alt=\"nuclear reactions - characteristics\" width=\"1024\" height=\"810\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/nuclear-reactions-characteristics-min-1024x810.png 1024w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/nuclear-reactions-characteristics-min-300x237.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/nuclear-reactions-characteristics-min-768x607.png 768w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/nuclear-reactions-characteristics-min.png 1167w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.oecd-nea.org\/janis\/\">JANIS &#8211;\u00a0Java-based Nuclear Data Information System<\/a><\/p>\n<p>See also: <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/\">Neutron Reactions<\/a><\/p>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"collapsible-container\">\n<h2>Notation of Nuclear Reactions<\/h2>\n<p>Standard nuclear notation shows (see picture) the chemical symbol, the mass number, and the atomic number of the isotope.<\/p>\n<p>If the initial nuclei are denoted by <strong><i>a<\/i><\/strong> and <i><strong>b<\/strong>, <\/i>and the product nuclei are denoted by <strong><i>c<\/i><\/strong> and <strong><i>d<\/i><\/strong>, the reaction can be represented by the equation:<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><i>a + b \u2192 c + d<\/i><\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_118\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-118\" style=\"width: 478px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/boron_neutron_reaction.gif\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-118 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/boron_neutron_reaction.gif\" alt=\"boron-neutron reaction\" width=\"488\" height=\"77\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-118\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">This equation describes<a title=\"Neutron Capture \u2013 Radiative Capture\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/neutron-capture-radiative-capture\/\"> neutron capture<\/a> in the <a title=\"Boron 10\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/glossary\/boron-10\/\">boron<\/a>, which is diluted in the coolant. <a title=\"Boric Acid \u2013 Chemical Shim\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/glossary\/boron-10\/boric-acid-chemical-shim\/\">Boric acid<\/a> is used in nuclear power plants as a long-term compensator of nuclear fuel reactivity.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_120\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-120\" style=\"width: 217px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/nuclei_notation.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-120\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/nuclei_notation-227x300.jpg\" alt=\"Notation of nuclei\" width=\"227\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/nuclei_notation-227x300.jpg 227w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/nuclei_notation-775x1024.jpg 775w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/nuclei_notation.jpg 880w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 227px) 100vw, 227px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-120\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Notation of nuclei<br \/>Source: chemwiki.ucdavis.edu<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Instead of using the full equations in the style above, a compact notation describes nuclear reactions in many situations. This style of the form <strong>a(b,c)d<\/strong> is equivalent to<strong> a + b<\/strong> producing <strong>c + d<\/strong>. Light particles are often abbreviated in this shorthand, typically p means proton, n means <a title=\"Neutron\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/neutron\/\">neutron<\/a>, d means deuteron, \u03b1 means an <a title=\"Alpha Particle\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/alpha-particle\/\">alpha particle<\/a> or helium-4, \u03b2 means beta particle or electron, \u03b3 means <a title=\"Gamma Rays \/ Gamma Radiation\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/photon\/gamma-ray\/\">gamma photon<\/a>, etc. The reaction above would be written as <strong>10B(n,\u03b1)7Li.<\/strong><\/p>\n<h2>Basic Classification of Nuclear Reactions<\/h2>\n<p><strong><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">To understand the nature of <a title=\"Neutron Nuclear Reactions\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/\">neutron nuclear reactions<\/a>, the classification according to <strong>the time scale<\/strong> of these reactions has to be introduced. Interaction time is critical for defining the reaction mechanism.<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">There are <strong>two extreme scenarios<\/strong> for nuclear reactions (not only neutron reactions): <\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A projectile and a target nucleus are within the range of nuclear forces for <\/span><b>a very short time<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> allowing for an <\/span><b>interaction of a single nucleon only<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. These types of reactions are called <\/span><a title=\"Direct Nuclear Reactions\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/direct-nuclear-reactions\/\"><b>direct reactions<\/b><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">A projectile and a target nucleus are within the range of nuclear forces, allowing for many<\/span><b>\u00a0interactions between nucleons<\/b><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. These types of reactions are called the <\/span><a title=\"Compound Nucleus Reactions\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/compound-nucleus-reactions\/\"><b>compound nucleus reactions<\/b><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">. <\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">In fact, there is always some <strong>non-direct<\/strong> (multiple internuclear interaction) component in all reactions, but the direct reactions have this component limited. <\/span><\/strong> <\/span><\/strong><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Basic Characteristics of Direct Reactions<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Direct Nuclear Reactions\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/direct-nuclear-reactions\/\">The direct reactions<\/a> are fast and involve a <strong>single-nucleon interaction<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>The interaction time must be very short<strong> (~10<sup>-22<\/sup> s)<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>The direct reactions require incident particle energy <strong>larger than \u223c 5 MeV\/Ap<\/strong>. (Ap is the atomic mass number of a projectile)<\/li>\n<li>Incident particles interact <strong>on the surface<\/strong> of a target nucleus rather than in the volume of a target nucleus.<\/li>\n<li>Products of the direct reactions <strong>are not distributed isotropically in angle<\/strong>, but they are forward-focused.<\/li>\n<li>Direct reactions are of importance in measurements of nuclear structure.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Basic Characteristics of Compound Nucleus Reactions<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<ul>\n<li>The compound nucleus is a <strong>relatively long-lived<\/strong> intermediate state of the particle-target composite system.<\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Compound Nucleus Reactions\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/compound-nucleus-reactions\/\">The compound nucleus reactions<\/a> involve <strong>many nucleon-nucleon interactions<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>A large number of collisions between the nucleons leads to a <strong>thermal equilibrium<\/strong> inside the compound nucleus.<\/li>\n<li>The time scale of compound nucleus reactions is <strong>10<sup>-18<\/sup> s &#8211; 10<sup>-16<\/sup> s<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>The compound nucleus reactions are usually created if the projectile has <strong>low energy<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>Incident particles interact in the volume of a target nucleus.<\/li>\n<li>Products of the compound nucleus reactions are distributed <strong>near isotropically in angle<\/strong> (the nucleus loses memory of how it was created &#8211; <em><strong>Bohr\u2019s hypothesis of independence<\/strong><\/em>).<\/li>\n<li><strong>The decay mode<\/strong>\u00a0of the compound nucleus <strong>does not depend on how the compound nucleus is formed<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>Resonances in the cross-section are typical for the compound nucleus reaction.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h2>Types of Nuclear Reactions<\/h2>\n<p>Although the number of possible <strong>nuclear reactions<\/strong> is enormous, nuclear reactions can be sorted by type. Most nuclear reactions are accompanied by gamma emissions. Some examples are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Neutron Elastic Scattering\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/neutron-elastic-scattering\/\"><strong>Elastic scattering<\/strong><\/a>. In elastic scattering, the kinetic energy of a particle is conserved in the center-of-mass frame, but its direction of propagation is modified. There is no energy transferred into nuclear excitation in an elastic scattering reaction. It is a crucial reaction for <a href=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/neutron-moderator\/\">neutron moderators<\/a> in nuclear reactors. To be an effective moderator, the probability of an elastic reaction between the neutron and the nucleus must be high.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>1H (n, n) 1H<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><a title=\"Neutron Inelastic Scattering\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/neutron-inelastic-scattering\/\">Inelastic scattering<\/a><\/strong>. In inelastic scattering, the particle is absorbed and then re-emitted. The difference of kinetic energies is saved in an excited nuclide. An inelastic scattering plays an important role in slowing down neutrons, especially at high energies and by heavy nuclei.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>238U (n, n\u2019) 238U*<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Neutron Capture \u2013 Radiative Capture\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/neutron-capture-radiative-capture\/\"><strong>Capture reaction<\/strong><\/a>. The capture reaction is one of the two possible absorption reactions that may occur. Capture reactions result in the loss of a neutron coupled with the production of one or more gamma rays. The resulting nucleus may also undergo a subsequent decay, such as beta decay in this example, which is a very important reaction in nuclear fuel.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>238U (n, \u02e0) 239U<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-reactions\/nucleon-transfer-reaction\/\"><strong>Transfer Reaction<\/strong><\/a>. Transfer reactions are nuclear reactions in which one or more nucleons are transferred to the other nucleus. Transfer reactions can occur from the projectile to the target; stripping reactions, or from the target to the projectile; pick-up reactions. These reactions are common in particle accelerators and astrophysics.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>4He (\u03b1, p) 7Li<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Nuclear Fission\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/fission\/\"><strong>Fission reactions<\/strong><\/a>. Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts (lighter nuclei). The fission process often produces <a title=\"Free Neutron\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/neutron\/free-neutron\/\">free neutrons<\/a> and photons (in the form of gamma rays) and releases a large amount of energy.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong><a title=\"Uranium 235\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/nuclear-fuel\/uranium\/uranium-235\/\">235U<\/a> (n, 3n) <i>fission products<\/i><\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-fusion\/\"><strong>Fusion reactions<\/strong><\/a>. \u00a0Occur when two or more atomic nuclei collide at a very high speed and join to form a new type of atomic nucleus. The fusion reaction of deuterium and tritium is exciting because of its potential of providing energy for the future.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>3T (d, n) 4He<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-reactions\/spallation-reaction\/\"><strong>Spallation reactions<\/strong><\/a>. Spallation reaction occurs when a particle hits a nucleus with sufficient energy and momentum to knock out several small fragments or smash them into many fragments. Nuclear spallation is one of the processes by which a particle accelerator may be used to produce a beam of neutrons.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>209Bi (\u03b1,xn)213-xAt<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/radioactive-decay\/\"><strong>Nuclear decay<\/strong><\/a> (<strong>Radioactive decay<\/strong>). Occurs when an unstable atom loses energy by emitting <a title=\"Radiation\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/radiation\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">ionizing radiation<\/a>. Radioactive decay is a random process at the level of single atoms, in that, according to quantum theory, it is impossible to predict when a particular atom will decay. There are many types of radioactive decay:\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/radioactive-decay\/alpha-decay-alpha-radioactivity\/\"><strong>Alpha radioactivity<\/strong><\/a>. Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus. Because of its huge mass (more than 7000 times the mass of the beta particle) and its charge, it heavily ionizes material and has a very short range.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/radioactive-decay\/beta-decay-beta-radioactivity\/\"><strong>Beta radioactivity<\/strong><\/a>. Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed electrons or positrons emitted by specific radioactive nuclei such as potassium-40. The beta particles emitted are a form of ionizing radiation, also known as beta rays. The beta particles have a greater range of penetration than alpha particles but still much less than gamma rays. The production of beta particles is termed beta decay.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/radioactive-decay\/gamma-decay-gamma-radioactivity\/\"><strong>Gamma radioactivity<\/strong><\/a>. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of a very high frequency and are therefore high-energy photons. Nuclei decay produces them as they transition from a high-energy state to a lower state known as gamma decay. Most nuclear reactions are accompanied by gamma emissions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li><strong><a title=\"Neutron Emission\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/neutron-emission\/\">Neutron emission<\/a>.\u00a0<\/strong>Neutron emission is a type of radioactive decay of nuclei containing excess neutrons (especially fission products), in which a neutron is simply ejected from the nucleus. This type of radiation plays a key role in nuclear reactor control because these neutrons are <a title=\"Delayed Neutrons\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/fission\/delayed-neutrons\/\">delayed neutrons<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure id=\"attachment_119\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-119\" style=\"width: 695px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/notation_nuclear_reactions.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-119 size-large\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/notation_nuclear_reactions-1024x1000.jpg\" alt=\"Notation of nuclear reactions - radioactive decays\" width=\"705\" height=\"688\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/notation_nuclear_reactions-1024x1000.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/notation_nuclear_reactions-300x293.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 705px) 100vw, 705px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-119\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Radioactive decays<br \/>Source: chemwiki.ucdavis.edu<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2>Main Characteristics of Nuclear Reactions<\/h2>\n<p>In nuclear physics, the <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/neutron-cross-section\/\">nuclear cross-section<\/a> of a nucleus is commonly used to characterize the\u00a0<strong>probability<\/strong>\u00a0that a\u00a0<a title=\"Nuclear Reactions\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-reactions\/\">nuclear reaction<\/a>\u00a0will occur. The cross-section is typically denoted\u00a0<strong>\u03c3<\/strong> and measured in units of the area [m<sup>2<\/sup>]. The standard unit for measuring a nuclear cross-section is the <strong>barn<\/strong>, equal to <strong>10<sup>\u221228<\/sup>\u00a0m\u00b2 or 10<sup>\u221224<\/sup>\u00a0cm\u00b2<\/strong>. It can be seen that the concept of a nuclear cross-section can be quantified physically using a <strong>\u201ccharacteristic target area,\u201d<\/strong>\u00a0where a larger area means a larger probability of interaction.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-engineering-fundamentals\/neutron-nuclear-reactions\/microscopic-cross-section\/nuclear-cross-section-min\/#main\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignright wp-image-13580 size-medium\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/01\/nuclear-cross-section-min-300x300.png\" alt=\"nuclear cross-sections, microscopic cross-sections\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/01\/nuclear-cross-section-min-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/01\/nuclear-cross-section-min-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/01\/nuclear-cross-section-min-66x66.png 66w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/01\/nuclear-cross-section-min.png 900w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a>For a given event, the cross-section <strong>\u03c3<\/strong>\u00a0is given by<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u03c3 = \u03bc\/n<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>where<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>\u03c3<\/strong>\u00a0is the cross-section of this event [m<sup>2<\/sup>],<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03bc<\/strong>\u00a0is the attenuation coefficient due to the occurrence of this event [m<sup>-1<\/sup>],<\/li>\n<li><strong>n<\/strong>\u00a0is the density of the target particles [m<sup>-3<\/sup>].<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Conservation Laws in Nuclear Reactions<\/h2>\n<p>In analyzing nuclear reactions, we apply the\u00a0<strong>many conservation laws<\/strong>.\u00a0<strong>Nuclear reactions<\/strong>\u00a0are subject to classical\u00a0<strong>conservation laws for the charge, momentum, angular momentum, and energy<\/strong>(including rest energies). \u00a0Other conservation laws, not anticipated by classical physics, are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a title=\"Law of Conservation of Lepton Number\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/laws-of-conservation\/law-conservation-lepton-number\/\">Law of Conservation of Lepton Number<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Law of Conservation of Baryon Number\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/laws-of-conservation\/law-conservation-baryon-number\/\">Law of Conservation of Baryon Number<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Law of Conservation of Electric Charge\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/laws-of-conservation\/law-conservation-electric-charge\/\">Law of Conservation of Electric Charge<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Law of Conservation of Lepton Number<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\"><strong><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/Lepton-Number-Table.png?c3bb24\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-15937\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/Lepton-Number-Table-300x154.png?c3bb24\" alt=\"Lepton Number. Conservation of Lepton Number\" width=\"300\" height=\"154\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/Lepton-Number-Table-300x154.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/Lepton-Number-Table.png 416w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>In particle physics<\/strong>, the<strong>\u00a0lepton number\u00a0<\/strong>is used to denote which particles are leptons and which particles are not. Each\u00a0<strong>lepton<\/strong>\u00a0has a lepton number of\u00a0<strong>1, <\/strong>and each<strong>\u00a0antilepton\u00a0<\/strong>has a lepton number of\u00a0<strong>-1<\/strong>. Other non-leptonic particles have a lepton number of 0. The lepton number is a\u00a0<strong>conserved quantum number<\/strong>\u00a0in all particle reactions. A slight asymmetry in the laws of physics allowed leptons to be created in the Big Bang.<\/p>\n<p><strong>The conservation of lepton number<\/strong>\u00a0means that whenever a lepton of a certain generation is created or destroyed in a reaction, a corresponding antilepton from the\u00a0<strong>same generation<\/strong> must be created or destroyed. It must be added, and there is a separate requirement for each of the three generations of leptons, the electron, muon, and tau, and their associated neutrinos.<\/p>\n<p>Consider the decay of the\u00a0<a title=\"Neutron\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/neutron\/\">neutron<\/a>. The reaction involves only\u00a0<strong>first-generation leptons<\/strong>: electrons and\u00a0<a title=\"Neutrino\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/neutrino\/\">neutrinos<\/a>:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/Lepton-Number-Neutron-Decay.png?c3bb24&amp;c3bb24\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-15942\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/Lepton-Number-Neutron-Decay.png?c3bb24&amp;c3bb24\" alt=\"lepton-number-neutron-decay\" width=\"262\" height=\"60\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Since the lepton number must be equal to zero on both sides and it was found that the reaction is a three-particle decay (<strong>the electrons emitted in\u00a0<\/strong><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/beta-particle\/spectrum-beta-particles\/\"><strong>beta decay have a continuous<\/strong><\/a><strong>\u00a0rather than a discrete spectrum<\/strong>), \u00a0the third particle must be an electron antineutrino.<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Law of Conservation of Baryon Number<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<p>In particle physics, the <a title=\"Baryon Number\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/baryons\/baryon-number\/\"><strong>baryon number<\/strong><\/a> is used to denote which particles are baryons and which particles are not. Each baryon has a baryon number of 1, and each\u00a0<strong>antibaryon <\/strong>has a baryon number of -1. Other non-baryonic particles have a baryon number of 0. Since there are exotic hadrons like pentaquarks and tetraquarks, there is a general definition of baryon number as:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/Baryon-Number-equation.png?c3bb24&amp;c3bb24\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-15940\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/Baryon-Number-equation.png?c3bb24&amp;c3bb24\" alt=\"baryon-number-equation\" width=\"143\" height=\"44\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>where n<sub>q<\/sub>\u00a0is the number of quarks, and n<sub>q<\/sub>\u00a0is the number of antiquarks.<\/p>\n<p>The\u00a0<strong>baryon number is a conserved quantum number<\/strong>\u00a0in all particle reactions.<\/p>\n<p>The\u00a0<strong>law of conservation of baryon number\u00a0<\/strong>states that:<\/p>\n<p><em>The sum of the baryon number of all incoming particles is the same as the sum of the baryon numbers of all particles resulting from the reaction.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>For example, the following reaction has never been observed:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/baryon-number-example-violation.png?c3bb24&amp;c3bb24\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-15939\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/baryon-number-example-violation.png?c3bb24&amp;c3bb24\" alt=\"baryon-number-example-violation\" width=\"269\" height=\"63\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>even if the incoming proton has sufficient energy and charge, energy, and so on, are conserved. This reaction does not conserve the baryon number since the left side has B =+2, and the right has B =+1.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, the following reaction (proton-antiproton pair production) does conserve B and does occur if the incoming proton has sufficient energy (the threshold energy = 5.6 GeV):<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/baryon-number-pair-production.png?c3bb24&amp;c3bb24\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-15938\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/baryon-number-pair-production.png?c3bb24&amp;c3bb24\" alt=\"baryon-number-pair-production\" width=\"297\" height=\"58\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>As indicated, B = +2 on both sides of this equation.<\/p>\n<p>From these and other reactions, the conservation of the baryon number has been established as a basic principle of physics.<\/p>\n<p>This principle provides the basis for the <strong>stability of the proton<\/strong>. Since the proton is the lightest particle among all baryons, the hypothetical products of its decay would have to be non-baryons. Thus, the decay would violate the conservation of the baryon number. It must be added some theories have suggested that protons are, in fact, unstable with a very long half-life (~10<sup>30<\/sup>\u00a0years) and that they decay into leptons. There is currently no experimental evidence that proton decay occurs.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Law of Conservation of Electric Charge<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<p>The<strong>\u00a0law of conservation of electric charge<\/strong>\u00a0can be demonstrated also on\u00a0<a title=\"Positron-Electron Pair Production\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/interaction-radiation-matter\/interaction-gamma-radiation-matter\/pair-production\/\"><strong>positron-electron pair production<\/strong><\/a>. Since the <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/photon\/gamma-ray\/\">gamma-ray<\/a> is electrically neutral and the sum of the electric charges of electron and positron is also zero, the electric charge in this reaction is also conserved.<\/p>\n<p>\u0194 \u2192 e<sup>&#8211;<\/sup>\u00a0+ e<sup>+<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>It must be added, for electron-positron pair production to occur, the electromagnetic energy of the photon must be above<strong>\u00a0threshold energy<\/strong>, which is equivalent to the rest mass of two electrons. The threshold energy (the total rest mass of produced particles) for electron-positron pair production equals <strong>1.02MeV (2 x 0.511MeV)<\/strong> because the rest mass of a single electron is equivalent to 0.511MeV of energy. If the origin photon\u2019s energy is greater than 1.02MeV, any energy above 1.02MeV is, according to the conservation law, split between the kinetic energy of motion of the two particles. The presence of <strong>an electric field of a heavy atom<\/strong>\u00a0such as lead or uranium<strong> is essential to satisfy the conservation of momentum and energy<\/strong>. To satisfy the conservation of momentum and energy, the atomic nucleus must accept some momentum. Therefore a <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/photon\/\">photon<\/a>\u00a0pair production\u00a0<strong>in free space cannot occur.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Certain of these laws are obeyed under all circumstances, and others are not. We have accepted the conservation of energy and momentum. In all the examples given, we assume that the number of protons and the number of neutrons is separately conserved. We shall find circumstances and conditions in which this rule is not true. Where we are considering non-relativistic nuclear reactions, it is essentially true. However, we shall find that these principles must be extended when we consider relativistic nuclear energies or those involving weak interactions.<\/p>\n<p>Some conservation principles have arisen from theoretical considerations, and others are just empirical relationships. Notwithstanding, any reaction not expressly forbidden by the conservation laws will generally occur, if perhaps at a slow rate. This expectation is based on quantum mechanics. Unless the barrier between the initial and final states is infinitely high, there is always a <strong>non-zero probability<\/strong>\u00a0that a system will make the transition between them.<\/p>\n<p>The non-relativistic reactions are governing by four of the fundamental laws and to analyze them is necessary to follow them:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Conservation of nucleons<\/strong>. The total number of nucleons before and after a reaction are the same.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Conservation of charge<\/strong>. The sum of the charges on all the particles before and after a reaction are the same.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Conservation of momentum<\/strong>. The total momentum of the interacting particles before and after a reaction is the same.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Conservation of energy<\/strong>. Energy, including rest mass energy, is conserved in nuclear reactions.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Reference: Lamarsh, John R. Introduction to Nuclear engineering 2nd Edition.<\/p>\n<h3>Elastic Nuclear Collision<\/h3>\n<p><strong>A neutron (n)<\/strong> of mass <strong>1.01 u<\/strong> traveling with a speed of <strong>3.60 x\u00a010<sup>4<\/sup>m\/s<\/strong> interacts with a <strong>carbon (C)<\/strong> nucleus (<strong>m<sub>C<\/sub> = 12.00 u<\/strong>) initially at rest in an <strong>elastic head-on collision<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>What are the velocities of the neutron and carbon nucleus after the collision?<\/p>\n<p><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>This is an <strong>elastic head-on collision<\/strong> of two objects with <strong>unequal masses<\/strong>. We have to use the conservation laws of momentum and kinetic energy and apply them to our system of two particles.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/conservation-laws-elastic-collisions.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-15743\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/conservation-laws-elastic-collisions.png\" alt=\"conservation-laws-elastic-collisions\" width=\"337\" height=\"259\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/conservation-laws-elastic-collisions.png 337w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/conservation-laws-elastic-collisions-300x231.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/conservation-laws-elastic-collisions-180x138.png 180w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 337px) 100vw, 337px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>We can solve this equation system, or we can use the equation derived in the previous section. This equation stated that the relative speed of the two objects after the collision has the same magnitude (but opposite direction) as before the collision, no matter what the masses are.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/solution-elastic-collision.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-15744\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/solution-elastic-collision.png\" alt=\"solution-elastic-collision\" width=\"446\" height=\"357\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/solution-elastic-collision.png 446w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/solution-elastic-collision-300x240.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/solution-elastic-collision-177x142.png 177w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/solution-elastic-collision-147x118.png 147w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 446px) 100vw, 446px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>The minus sign for v\u2019 tells us that the <strong>neutron scatters the back<\/strong> of the carbon nucleus because the carbon nucleus is significantly heavier. On the other hand, <strong>its speed is less<\/strong> than its initial speed. This process is known as <strong>neutron moderation,<\/strong> and it significantly depends on the mass of moderator nuclei.<\/p>\n<h2>Energetics of Nuclear Reactions &#8211; Q-value<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_15388\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-15388\" style=\"width: 290px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/Q-value-nuclear-reaction-min.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-15388\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/Q-value-nuclear-reaction-min-300x161.png\" alt=\"Q-value of DT fusion reaction\" width=\"300\" height=\"161\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/Q-value-nuclear-reaction-min-300x161.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/Q-value-nuclear-reaction-min.png 969w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-15388\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Q-value of DT fusion reaction<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In nuclear and particle physics, the <strong>energetics of nuclear reactions<\/strong> are determined by the reaction\u2019s Q-value. The <strong>Q-value<\/strong> of the reaction is defined as the <strong>difference<\/strong> between the sum of the <strong>masses<\/strong> of the <strong>initial reactants<\/strong> and the sum of the <strong>masses<\/strong> of the <strong>final products<\/strong>\u00a0in energy units (usually in MeV).<\/p>\n<p>Consider a typical reaction in which the projectile a and target A place to two products, B and b. This can also be expressed in the notation we have used so far, <strong>a + A \u2192 B + b<\/strong>, or even in a more compact notation, <strong>A(a,b)B<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>See also: <a title=\"E=mc2 Meaning\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-energy\/emc2-meaning\/\">E=mc<sup>2<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>The <strong>Q-value<\/strong> of this reaction is given by:<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Q = [m<sub>a<\/sub> + m<sub>A<\/sub> \u2013 (m<sub>b<\/sub> + m<sub>B<\/sub>)]c<sup>2<\/sup><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>which is the same as the <strong>excess kinetic energy<\/strong> of the final products:<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>Q = T<sub>final<\/sub> &#8211; T<sub>initial<\/sub><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0= T<sub>b<\/sub> + T<sub>B<\/sub> &#8211; (T<sub>a<\/sub> + T<sub>A<\/sub>)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>For reactions in which there is an increase in the kinetic energy of the products, <strong>Q is positive<\/strong>. The positive Q reactions are said to be <strong>exothermic<\/strong> (or <strong>exergic<\/strong>). There is a net release of energy since the kinetic energy of the final state is greater than the kinetic energy of the initial state.<\/p>\n<p>For reactions in which there is a decrease in the kinetic energy of the product, <strong>Q is negative<\/strong>. The negative Q reactions are <strong>endothermic<\/strong> (or <strong>endoergic<\/strong>), and they require net energy input.<\/p>\n<p>The <strong>energy released in a nuclear reaction<\/strong> can appear mainly in one of three ways:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>The kinetic energy<\/strong> of the products.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Emission of gamma rays<\/strong>. <strong>Gamma rays<\/strong> are emitted by <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/nuclear-stability\/\">unstable nuclei<\/a> in their transition from a high-energy state to a lower state known as gamma decay.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Metastable state<\/strong>. Some energy may remain in the nucleus as a metastable energy level.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>A small amount of energy may also emerge in the form of X-rays. Generally, products of nuclear reactions may have different atomic numbers, and thus the configuration of their electron shells is different in comparison with reactants. As the <strong>electrons rearrange<\/strong> themselves and drop to lower energy levels, internal transition X-rays (X-rays with precisely defined emission lines) may be emitted.<\/p>\n<h2>Exothermic Reactions<\/h2>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Example: Exothermic Reaction - DT fusion<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_15388\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-15388\" style=\"width: 290px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/Q-value-nuclear-reaction-min.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-15388\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/Q-value-nuclear-reaction-min-300x161.png\" alt=\"Q-value of DT fusion reaction\" width=\"300\" height=\"161\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/Q-value-nuclear-reaction-min-300x161.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/Q-value-nuclear-reaction-min.png 969w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-15388\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Q-value of DT fusion reaction<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong>The DT fusion reaction<\/strong> of deuterium and tritium is particularly interesting because of its potential to provide future energy. Calculate the reaction <strong>Q-value<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>3T (d, n) 4He<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The atom masses of the reactants and products are:<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>3<\/sup>T) = 3.0160 amu<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>2<\/sup>D) = 2.0141 amu<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>1<\/sup>n) = 1.0087 amu<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>4<\/sup>He) = 4.0026 amu<\/p>\n<p>Using the <a title=\"E=mc2 Meaning\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-energy\/emc2-meaning\/\">mass-energy equivalence<\/a>, we get the <strong>Q-value<\/strong> of this reaction as:<\/p>\n<p>Q = {(3.0160+2.0141) [amu] &#8211; (1.0087+4.0026) [amu]} x 931.481 [MeV\/amu]\n<p>= 0.0188 x 931.481 = <strong>17.5 MeV<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Example: Exothermic Reaction - Tritium in Reactors<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_15392\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-15392\" style=\"width: 290px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/10B-n-2alpha-T-reaction-cross-section-min.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-15392\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/10B-n-2alpha-T-reaction-cross-section-min-300x167.png\" alt=\"Cross-section of 10B(n,2alpha)T reaction.\" width=\"300\" height=\"167\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/10B-n-2alpha-T-reaction-cross-section-min-300x167.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/10B-n-2alpha-T-reaction-cross-section-min.png 860w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-15392\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cross-section of 10B(n,2alpha)T reaction.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong>Tritium<\/strong> is a byproduct of <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/what-is-nuclear-reactor\/\">nuclear reactors<\/a>. Most of the tritium produced in nuclear power plants stems from <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/glossary\/boron-10\/boric-acid-chemical-shim\/\">boric acid<\/a>, commonly used as a chemical shim to compensate for an excess of initial reactivity. The main reaction in which the tritium is generated from boron is below:<\/p>\n<p><strong>10B(n,2*alpha)T<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>This <b>neutron reaction<\/b>\u00a0with an isotope <strong><sup>10<\/sup><\/strong><strong>B<\/strong> is the main way radioactive tritium in the primary circuit of all <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/pwr-pressurized-water-reactor\/\">PWRs<\/a> is generated. Note that this reaction is a threshold reaction due to its cross-section.<\/p>\n<p>Calculate the reaction <strong>Q-value<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>The atom masses of the reactants and products are:<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>10<\/sup>B) = 10.01294 amu<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>1<\/sup>n) = 1.00866 amu<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>3<\/sup>T) = 3.01604 amu<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>4<\/sup>He) = 4.0026 amu<\/p>\n<p>Using the <a title=\"E=mc2 Meaning\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-energy\/emc2-meaning\/\">mass-energy equivalence<\/a>, we get the <strong>Q-value<\/strong> of this reaction as:<\/p>\n<p>Q = {(10.0129+1.00866) [amu] &#8211; (3.01604+2 x 4.0026) [amu]} x 931.481 [MeV\/amu]\n<p>= 0.00036 x 931.481 = <strong>0.335 MeV<\/strong><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h2>Endothermic Reactions<\/h2>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Example: Endothermic Reaction - Photoneutrons<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">In <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/what-is-nuclear-reactor\/\">nuclear reactors<\/a> the <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/photon\/gamma-ray\/\">gamma radiation<\/a> plays a significant role also in <strong>reactor kinetics<\/strong> and in <strong>a subcritical control<\/strong>. Especially in nuclear reactors with D<sub>2<\/sub>O moderator (<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/candu-heavy-water-reactor\/\">CANDU reactors<\/a>) or with Be reflectors (some experimental reactors). Neutrons can also be produced in <strong>(\u03b3, n) reactions,<\/strong> and therefore they are usually referred to as <strong>photoneutrons<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>A high-energy <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/photon\/\">photon<\/a> (<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/photon\/gamma-ray\/\">gamma-ray<\/a>) can, under certain conditions, <strong>eject<\/strong> a <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/neutron\/\">neutron<\/a> from a nucleus. It occurs when <strong>its energy exceeds<\/strong> <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/binding-energy\/\">the binding energy<\/a> of the neutron in the nucleus. Most nuclei have binding energies over <strong>6 MeV<\/strong>, above the energy of most gamma rays from <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/fission\/\">fission<\/a>. On the other hand, <strong>few nuclei<\/strong> with sufficiently low binding energy are of <strong>practical interest<\/strong>. These are <strong><sup>2<\/sup><\/strong><strong>D, <\/strong><strong><sup>9<\/sup><\/strong><strong>Be<\/strong>, <sup>6<\/sup>Li, <sup>7<\/sup>Li, and <sup>13<\/sup>C. As can be seen from the table, <strong>the lowest threshold<\/strong> has <strong><sup>9<\/sup><\/strong><strong>Be with 1.666 MeV<\/strong> and <strong><sup>2<\/sup><\/strong><strong>D with 2.226 MeV<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_12827\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-12827\" style=\"width: 533px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/10\/Photoneutron-sources.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-full wp-image-12827\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/10\/Photoneutron-sources.png\" alt=\"Photoneutron sources\" width=\"543\" height=\"264\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/10\/Photoneutron-sources.png 543w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/10\/Photoneutron-sources-300x146.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/10\/Photoneutron-sources-540x264.png 540w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 543px) 100vw, 543px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-12827\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Nuclides with low photodisintegration<br \/>threshold energies.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In the case of deuterium, neutrons can be produced by the interaction of gamma rays (with a minimum energy of 2.22 MeV) with deuterium:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/Photoneutron-deuterium.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-12882\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/11\/Photoneutron-deuterium.png\" alt=\"Photoneutron - deuterium\" width=\"232\" height=\"60\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>The<strong> reaction Q-value<\/strong> is calculated below:<\/p>\n<p>The atom masses of the reactant and products are:<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>2<\/sup>D) = 2.01363 amu<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>1<\/sup>n) = 1.00866 amu<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>1<\/sup>H) = 1.00728 amu<\/p>\n<p>Using the<a title=\"E=mc2 Meaning\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-energy\/emc2-meaning\/\"> mass-energy equivalence<\/a>, we get the Q-value of this reaction as:<\/p>\n<p>Q = {2.01363 [amu] &#8211; (1.00866+1.00728) [amu]} x 931.481 [MeV\/amu]\n<p>= -0.00231 x 931.481 = -2.15 MeV<\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Example: Endothermic Reaction - (\u03b1,n) reaction<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">Calculate the <strong>reaction Q-value<\/strong> of the following reaction:<\/p>\n<p><strong>7Li (\u03b1, n) 10B<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The atom masses of the reactants and products are:<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>4<\/sup>He) = 4.0026 amu<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>7<\/sup>Li) = 7.0160 amu<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>1<\/sup>n) = 1.0087 amu<\/p>\n<p>m(<sup>10<\/sup>B) = 10.01294 amu<\/p>\n<p>Using the m<a title=\"E=mc2 Meaning\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-energy\/emc2-meaning\/\">ass-energy equivalence<\/a>, we get the Q-value of this reaction as:<\/p>\n<p>Q = {(7.0160+4.0026) [amu] &#8211; (1.0087+10.01294) [amu]} x 931.481 [MeV\/amu]\n<p>= 0.00304 x 931.481 = -2.83 MeV<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:20px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-reactions\/nuclear-reactions-quiz-test-your-knowledge\/\">Test your Knowledge &#8211; Nuclear Reactions<\/a><\/h2>\n<h2><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-reactions\/nuclear-reactions-quiz-test-your-knowledge\/\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-25879\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/quiz-nuclear-reactions-sidebar-min.png\" alt=\"quiz - nuclear reactions\" width=\"253\" height=\"123\" \/><\/a><\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">With our simple quizzes, you can test your knowledge.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">It is intuitive: start quiz and answer questions.<\/p>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>References:<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\"><strong>Nuclear and Reactor Physics:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>J. R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading,\u00a0MA (1983).<\/li>\n<li>J. R. Lamarsh, A. J. Baratta, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 3d ed., Prentice-Hall, 2001, ISBN: 0-201-82498-1.<\/li>\n<li>W. M. Stacey, Nuclear Reactor Physics, John Wiley &amp; Sons, 2001, ISBN: 0- 471-39127-1.<\/li>\n<li>Glasstone, Sesonske. Nuclear Reactor Engineering: Reactor Systems Engineering,\u00a0Springer; 4th edition, 1994, ISBN:\u00a0978-0412985317<\/li>\n<li>W.S.C. Williams. Nuclear and Particle Physics.\u00a0Clarendon Press; 1 edition, 1991, ISBN:\u00a0978-0198520467<\/li>\n<li>Kenneth S. Krane. Introductory Nuclear Physics, 3rd Edition, Wiley, 1987,\u00a0ISBN:\u00a0978-0471805533<\/li>\n<li>G.R.Keepin. Physics of Nuclear Kinetics.\u00a0Addison-Wesley Pub. Co; 1st edition, 1965<\/li>\n<li>Robert Reed Burn, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Operation, 1988.<\/li>\n<li>U.S. Department of Energy, Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory.\u00a0DOE Fundamentals Handbook,\u00a0Volume 1 and 2.\u00a0January\u00a01993.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><strong><strong>Advanced Reactor Physics:<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>K. O. Ott, W. A. Bezella, Introductory Nuclear Reactor Statics, American Nuclear Society, Revised edition (1989), 1989, ISBN: 0-894-48033-2.<\/li>\n<li>K. O. Ott, R. J. Neuhold, Introductory Nuclear Reactor Dynamics, American Nuclear Society, 1985, ISBN: 0-894-48029-4.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">D. L. Hetrick, Dynamics of Nuclear Reactors, American Nuclear Society, 1993, ISBN: 0-894-48453-2.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li>E. E. Lewis, W. F. Miller, Computational Methods of Neutron Transport, American Nuclear Society, 1993, ISBN: 0-894-48452-4.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:15px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-default\" style=\"margin:15px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<h2>See previous:<\/h2>\n<p>Radioactive Decay<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/radioactive-decay\" class=\"su-button su-button-style-flat\" style=\"color:#606060;background-color:#ffffff;border-color:#cccccc;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px\" target=\"_self\"><span style=\"color:#606060;padding:7px 20px;font-size:16px;line-height:24px;border-color:#ffffff;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px;text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-moz-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-webkit-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000\"><i class=\"sui sui-link\" style=\"font-size:16px;color:#5d5d5d\"><\/i> <\/span><\/a><\/p><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<h2>See above:<\/h2>\n<p>Atomic and Nuclear Physics<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/\" class=\"su-button su-button-style-flat\" style=\"color:#606060;background-color:#ffffff;border-color:#cccccc;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px\" target=\"_self\"><span style=\"color:#606060;padding:7px 20px;font-size:16px;line-height:24px;border-color:#ffffff;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px;text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-moz-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-webkit-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000\"><i class=\"sui sui-link\" style=\"font-size:16px;color:#5d5d5d\"><\/i> <\/span><\/a><\/p><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<h2>See next:<\/h2>\n<p>Binding Energy<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/binding-energy\/\" class=\"su-button su-button-style-flat\" style=\"color:#606060;background-color:#ffffff;border-color:#cccccc;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px\" target=\"_self\"><span style=\"color:#606060;padding:7px 20px;font-size:16px;line-height:24px;border-color:#ffffff;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px;text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-moz-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-webkit-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000\"><i class=\"sui sui-link\" style=\"font-size:16px;color:#5d5d5d\"><\/i> <\/span><\/a><\/p><\/div><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>A nuclear reaction is a process when two atomic nuclei or subatomic particles interact to produce one or more new particles or gamma rays. Thus, a nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another. Sometimes if a nucleus interacts with another nucleus or particle without changing the nature of any &#8230; <a title=\"Nuclear Reactions\" class=\"read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-reactions\/\" aria-label=\"More on Nuclear Reactions\">Read more<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":52,"menu_order":2,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"generate_page_header":""},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/113"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=113"}],"version-history":[{"count":19,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/113\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":40116,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/113\/revisions\/40116"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/52"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=113"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}