{"id":14176,"date":"2017-04-16T18:00:57","date_gmt":"2017-04-16T18:00:57","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/?page_id=14176"},"modified":"2022-11-14T09:06:30","modified_gmt":"2022-11-14T09:06:30","slug":"nuclear-engineering","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/","title":{"rendered":"Thermal Engineering"},"content":{"rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"sue-icon\" style=\"font-size:25px;color:#333333;margin:0px 20px 20px 0px\" target=\"_self\"><i class=\"sui sui-arrow-circle-up\" style=\"font-size:30px;line-height:30px;background:#eeeeee;color:#777777;-webkit-border-radius:60px;-moz-border-radius:60px;border-radius:60px;padding:4px\"><\/i><span class=\"sue-icon-text\">Mega menu<\/span><\/a>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"sue-icon\" style=\"font-size:25px;color:#333333;margin:0px 20px 20px 0px\" target=\"_self\"><i class=\"sui sui-arrow-circle-down\" style=\"font-size:30px;line-height:30px;background:#eeeeee;color:#777777;-webkit-border-radius:60px;-moz-border-radius:60px;border-radius:60px;padding:4px\"><\/i><span class=\"sue-icon-text\">Thematic menu<\/span><\/a>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-50 lgc-tablet-grid-50 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-shadow-wrap sue-content-wrap sue-shadow-inline-no\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-shadow sue-shadow-style-vertical\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-panel\" data-url=\"\" data-target=\"self\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff;color:#333333;border-radius:0px;-moz-border-radius:0px;-webkit-border-radius:0px;box-shadow:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;border:1px solid #cccccc\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-panel-content sue-content-wrap\" style=\"padding:15px;text-align:left\">\n<div class=\"su-heading su-heading-style-modern-1-dark su-heading-align-left\" id=\"\" style=\"font-size:13px;margin-bottom:20px\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-heading-inner\">\n<h2>Fluid Dynamics<\/h2>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<h3>What is fluid dynamics?<\/h3>\n<p>In physics,\u00a0<strong>fluid dynamics<\/strong>\u00a0is a subdiscipline of\u00a0<strong>fluid mechanics<\/strong>\u00a0that deals with fluid flow.\u00a0<strong>Fluid dynamics<\/strong>\u00a0is one of the most important of all areas of physics.<\/p>\n<h3>Key Facts<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/continuity-equation\/\">Conservation of mass<\/a> in\u00a0<a title=\"Fluid Dynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/\"><strong>fluid dynamics<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0states that all\u00a0<strong>mass flow rates into<\/strong>\u00a0a control volume are equal to all\u00a0<strong>mass flow rates out<\/strong> of the control volume plus the rate of mass change within the control volume.<\/li>\n<li><strong><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/bernoullis-equation-bernoullis-principle\/\">Bernoulli\u2019s equation<\/a><\/strong> can be considered a statement of the\u00a0<strong>conservation of energy principle<\/strong>\u00a0appropriate for flowing fluids.<\/li>\n<li><strong>The <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/reynolds-number\/\">Reynolds number<\/a><\/strong> is one of the characteristic numbers used for predicting whether a flow condition will be\u00a0<strong><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/laminar-flow-viscous\/\">laminar<\/a> or <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/turbulent-flow\/\">turbulent<\/a><\/strong>. It is defined as the ratio of\u00a0<strong>inertial forces<\/strong>\u00a0to\u00a0<strong>viscous forces.<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/bernoullis-equation-bernoullis-principle\/head-loss\/\">Head loss<\/a> of the hydraulic system is divided into\u00a0<strong>two main categories<\/strong>:\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/major-head-loss-friction-loss\/\"><strong>Major Head Loss<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0\u2013 due to friction in straight pipes<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/minor-head-loss-local-losses\/\"><strong>Minor Head Loss<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0\u2013 due to components as valves, bends\u2026<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Darcy-Weisbach Equation\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/major-head-loss-friction-loss\/darcy-weisbach-equation\/\"><strong>Darcy\u2019s equation<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0can be used to calculate\u00a0<strong>major\u00a0losses<\/strong>. The\u00a0<a title=\"Darcy Friction Factor\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/major-head-loss-friction-loss\/darcy-friction-factor-2\/\"><strong>friction factor<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0for fluid flow can be determined using a\u00a0<a title=\"Moody Diagram\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/major-head-loss-friction-loss\/moody-diagram\/\"><strong>Moody chart<\/strong><\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>In\u00a0<a title=\"Fluid Dynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/\">fluid dynamics<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/what-is-drag-air-and-fluid-resistance\/\"><strong>drag<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any moving object. The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction.<\/li>\n<li>By definition,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/two-phase-fluid-flow\/\"><strong>multiphase flow<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0is the interactive flow of\u00a0<strong>two or more<\/strong>\u00a0distinct phases with common interfaces in, say, a conduit.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/fluid-dynamics\/centrifugal-pumps\/\"><strong>Centrifugal pumps<\/strong><\/a> are devices used to transport fluids by converting<strong>\u00a0rotational kinetic energy<\/strong>\u00a0to the\u00a0<strong>hydrodynamic energy<\/strong>\u00a0of the fluid flow.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:10px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What is difference between fluid mechanics and fluid dynamics?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\"><strong>What is the difference between fluid mechanics and fluid dynamics?<\/strong>\n<p><b>Fluid mechanics<\/b>\u00a0is the study of the forces on\u00a0<b>fluids<\/b>. These\u00a0<b>fluids<\/b> can be either gas or <b>liquid<\/b>. In physics,\u00a0<strong>fluid dynamics<\/strong>\u00a0is a subdiscipline of\u00a0<strong>fluid mechanics<\/strong> that deals with fluid flow.\u00a0<b>Fluid mechanics<\/b> include <b>fluid<\/b>\u00a0statics (the study of\u00a0<b>fluids<\/b>\u00a0at rest) and\u00a0<b>fluid dynamics<\/b>\u00a0(the study of\u00a0<b>fluids<\/b>\u00a0in motion).<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What is the definition of fluid?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<strong>What is the definition of fluid?<\/strong>\n<p>In physics, a fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under applied shear stress. The characteristic that distinguishes a fluid from a solid is its inability to resist deformation under applied shear stress (a tangential force per unit area). Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas, and, to some extent, plastic solids.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What is fluid dynamics used for?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<strong>What is fluid dynamics used for?<\/strong>\n<p><strong>Fluid dynamics<\/strong> are an important part of most industrial processes, especially those involving the<br \/>\ntransfer of heat.\u00a0<a title=\"Nuclear Reactor\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/nuclear-reactor\/\"><strong>In nuclear reactors,<\/strong>\u00a0<\/a>the heat removal from the\u00a0<a title=\"Reactor Core\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/nuclear-reactor-core\/\">reactor core<\/a> is accomplished by passing a liquid or ga搜索引擎优化us coolant through the core and other regions where heat is generated.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-50 lgc-tablet-grid-50 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-shadow-wrap sue-content-wrap sue-shadow-inline-no\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-shadow sue-shadow-style-vertical\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-panel\" data-url=\"\" data-target=\"self\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff;color:#333333;border-radius:0px;-moz-border-radius:0px;-webkit-border-radius:0px;box-shadow:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;border:1px solid #cccccc\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-panel-content sue-content-wrap\" style=\"padding:15px;text-align:left\">\n<div class=\"su-heading su-heading-style-modern-1-dark su-heading-align-left\" id=\"\" style=\"font-size:13px;margin-bottom:20px\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-heading-inner\">\n<h2>Thermodynamics<\/h2>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<h3>What is thermodynamics?<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Thermodynamics<\/strong> is the science that deals with energy production, storage, transfer, and conversion. It studies the effects of\u00a0<a title=\"Work in Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/work-in-thermodynamics\/\">work<\/a>,\u00a0<a title=\"Heat in Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/heat-in-thermodynamics\/\">heat<\/a>,\u00a0and\u00a0<a title=\"What is Energy \u2013 Physics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/\">energy<\/a>\u00a0on a system. Despite the fact it is a\u00a0<strong>very broad subject<\/strong> that affects most fields of science, including biology and microelectronics, we will concern mostly with large-scale observations.<\/p>\n<h3>Key Facts<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>In\u00a0<strong>physics<\/strong> and\u00a0<strong>everyday life,<\/strong>\u00a0a\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-temperature-physics\/\"><strong>temperature<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0is an objective comparative measurement of\u00a0<strong>hot or cold<\/strong> based on our sense of touch. This definition is not a simple matter. The kinetic<strong>\u00a0theory<\/strong>\u00a0of gases provides a microscopic explanation of temperature. It is based on the fact that during an\u00a0<a title=\"Elastic Collisions\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/laws-of-conservation\/law-of-conservation-of-energy\/elastic-collisions\/\">elastic collision<\/a> between a molecule with high kinetic energy and one with low kinetic energy, part of the energy will transfer to the molecule of lower kinetic energy.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/\"><strong>Energy<\/strong><\/a> is generally defined as the\u00a0<strong>potential to do work<\/strong>\u00a0<strong>or produce heat<\/strong>. Sometimes it is like the \u201ccurrency\u201d for performing work. You must have the energy to accomplish work. To do 1 kilojoule of work, you must expend 1 kilojoule of energy.<\/li>\n<li>The\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/what-is-enthalpy\/enthalpy-nuclear-fuel\/\"><strong>enthalpy<\/strong><\/a> is the sum of the internal energy\u00a0<strong>E<\/strong>\u00a0plus the product of the pressure\u00a0<strong>p<\/strong>\u00a0and volume\u00a0<strong>V.<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/\"><strong>Four laws of thermodynamics<\/strong><\/a> define fundamental physical quantities (temperature, energy, and entropy) and characterize thermodynamic systems at\u00a0<a title=\"Thermal Equilibrium\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-temperature-physics\/thermal-equilibrium\/\"><strong>thermal equilibrium<\/strong><\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>The<strong>\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/ideal-gas-law\/ideal-gas-model\/\">ideal gas model<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0is used to predict the behavior of gases and is one of the most useful and commonly used substance models ever developed.<\/li>\n<li>A\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-processes\/\"><strong>thermodynamic process<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0is defined as a change from one equilibrium macrostate to another macrostate. The<strong>\u00a0initial<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>final states<\/strong>\u00a0are the defining elements of the process.<\/li>\n<li>The typical <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-cycles\/\"><strong>thermodynamic cycle<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0consists of a series of\u00a0<a title=\"Thermodynamic Processes\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-processes\/\">thermodynamic processes<\/a> transferring heat and work while varying pressure, temperature, and other state variables, eventually returning a system to its initial state.<\/li>\n<li>Today, the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-cycles\/rankine-cycle-steam-turbine-cycle\/\"><strong>Rankine cycle<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0is the fundamental operating cycle of\u00a0<strong>all thermal power plants<\/strong>\u00a0where an operating fluid is continuously evaporated and condensed.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:10px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What are the four laws of thermodynamics?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\"><strong>What are the four laws of thermodynamics?<\/strong>\n<p>The laws are as follows:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><a title=\"Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-temperature-physics\/zeroth-law-of-thermodynamics\/\"><strong>Zeroth law of thermodynamics:<\/strong><\/a> <em>If two systems are both in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.<\/em><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/\"><strong>The first<\/strong><\/a><a title=\"First Law of Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/\"><strong>\u00a0law of thermodynamics:<\/strong><\/a> <em>The increase in internal energy of a closed system is equal to the heat supplied to the system minus work done by it.\u00a0 <\/em><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Second Law of Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/second-law-of-thermodynamics\/\"><strong>The second law of thermodynamics:<\/strong><\/a> <em>The entropy of any isolated system never decreases. In a natural thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies of the interacting thermodynamic systems increases. <\/em><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Third Law of Thermodynamics \u2013 3rd Law\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/third-law-of-thermodynamics-3rd-law\/\"><strong>Third law of thermodynamics:<\/strong><\/a> <em>The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What is the definition of fluid?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<strong>What is thermodynamics used for?<\/strong>\n<p>Despite the fact it is a\u00a0<strong>very broad subject<\/strong> that affects most fields of science, including biology and microelectronics, we will concern mostly with large-scale observations. Knowledge of <strong>thermodynamics\u00a0<\/strong>is essential to <strong>engineers<\/strong>\u00a0who deal with power plants. Our goal here will be to introduce\u00a0<strong>thermodynamics as the energy conversion science and<\/strong>\u00a0introduce some of the fundamental concepts and definitions used in the study of <strong>engineering thermodynamics<\/strong>. These fundamental concepts and definitions will be further applied to energy systems and finally to\u00a0<strong>thermal<\/strong>\u00a0or\u00a0<strong>nuclear power plants<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What is the thermal efficiency of nuclear power plant?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<strong>What is the thermal efficiency of nuclear power plants?<\/strong>\n<p>In modern nuclear power plants, the overall <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/thermal-efficiency\/thermal-efficiency-of-nuclear-power-plants\/\">thermal efficiency<\/a>\u00a0is about\u00a0<strong>one-third\u00a0<\/strong>(33%), so\u00a0<strong>3000 MWth<\/strong>\u00a0of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/neutron-diffusion-theory\/reactor-thermal-power\/\">thermal power<\/a>\u00a0from the fission reaction is needed to generate\u00a0<strong>1000 MWe<\/strong>\u00a0of electrical power.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-100 lgc-tablet-grid-100 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-shadow-wrap sue-content-wrap sue-shadow-inline-no\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-shadow sue-shadow-style-vertical\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-panel\" data-url=\"\" data-target=\"self\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff;color:#333333;border-radius:0px;-moz-border-radius:0px;-webkit-border-radius:0px;box-shadow:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;border:1px solid #cccccc\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-panel-content sue-content-wrap\" style=\"padding:15px;text-align:left\">\n<div class=\"su-heading su-heading-style-modern-1-dark su-heading-align-left\" id=\"\" style=\"font-size:13px;margin-bottom:20px\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-heading-inner\">\n<h2>Heat Transfer<\/h2>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<h3>What is heat transfer?<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Heat transfer<\/strong> is an engineering discipline that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of heat (thermal energy) between physical systems.\u00a0\u00a0In power engineering, it determines key parameters and materials of heat exchangers.<\/p>\n<h3>Key Facts<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/introduction-to-heat-transfer\/heat-in-physics-definition-of-heat\/\"><strong>Heat<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0is the amount of energy\u00a0<strong>flowing<\/strong>\u00a0from one body to another spontaneously due to their temperature difference.\u00a0<strong>Heat<\/strong>\u00a0is a form of energy, but it is\u00a0<strong>energy in transit<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>Heat transfer is usually classified into various mechanisms, such as:\n<ul>\n<li><strong><a title=\"Thermal Conduction \u2013 Heat Conduction\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/thermal-conduction\/\">Heat Conduction<\/a>.<\/strong> Heat conduction, also called diffusion, occurs within a body or between two bodies in contact. It is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary between two systems.<\/li>\n<li><strong><a title=\"Convection \u2013 Convective Heat Transfer\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/convection-convective-heat-transfer\/\">Heat Convection<\/a>.<\/strong> Heat convection depends on the motion of mass from one region of space to another. Heat convection occurs when the bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries heat along with the flow of matter in the fluid.<\/li>\n<li><strong><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/radiation-heat-transfer\/thermal-radiation-radiant-heat\/\">Thermal Radiation<\/a>.<\/strong> Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation, such as sunshine, with no need to be present in the space between bodies.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/thermal-conduction\/fouriers-law-of-thermal-conduction\/\"><strong>Fourier\u2019s law of thermal conduction<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0states that the time <strong>rate of heat transfer<\/strong>\u00a0through a material is\u00a0<strong>proportional to<\/strong>\u00a0the negative\u00a0<strong>gradient in the temperature<\/strong> and the area, at right angles to that gradient, through which the heat flows.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/convection-convective-heat-transfer\/newtons-law-of-cooling\/\"><strong>Newton\u2019s law of cooling<\/strong><\/a> states that the rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the difference in the temperatures between the body and its surroundings provided the temperature difference is small, and the nature of radiating surface remains the same.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/radiation-heat-transfer\/stefan-boltzmann-law-stefan-boltzmann-constant\/\"><strong>Stefan\u2013Boltzmann law <\/strong><\/a>states that radiation heat transfer\u00a0rate, q [W\/m<sup>2<\/sup>], from a body (e.g.,, a black body) to its surroundings is proportional to the <strong>fourth power<\/strong>\u00a0of the\u00a0<a title=\"Kelvin Scale \u2013 Absolute Temperature\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-temperature-physics\/kelvin-scale-absolute-temperature\/\">absolute temperature<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/boiling-and-condensation\/\"><strong>Boiling and condensation<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0differ from other forms of convection in that they depend on the\u00a0<strong>latent heat of vaporization<\/strong>, which is\u00a0<strong>very high<\/strong>\u00a0for common\u00a0<a title=\"What is Pressure \u2013 Physics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-pressure-physics\/\">pressures<\/a>. Therefore large amounts of heat can be transferred during boiling and condensation essentially at a constant temperature.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/heat-exchangers\/\"><strong>Heat exchangers<\/strong><\/a> are devices used to transfer\u00a0<a title=\"Internal Energy \u2013 Thermal Energy\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/internal-energy-thermal-energy\/\">thermal energy<\/a>\u00a0from one fluid to another without mixing the two fluids.<\/li>\n<li>To minimize <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/heat-losses\/\"><strong>heat losses<\/strong><\/a> in industry and also in the construction of buildings,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/heat-losses\/thermal-insulation\/\"><strong>thermal insulation<\/strong><\/a> is widely used. Thermal insulation aims to reduce the<a title=\"Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient \u2013 U-factor\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/convection-convective-heat-transfer\/overall-heat-transfer-coefficient-u-factor\/\">\u00a0overall heat transfer coefficient<\/a> by adding material with low\u00a0<a title=\"Thermal Conductivity\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/thermal-conduction\/thermal-conductivity\/\">thermal conductivity<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:10px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What are the three mechanisms of heat transfer?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\"><strong>What are the three mechanisms of heat transfer?<\/strong>\n<p>Heat transfer is usually classified into various mechanisms, such as:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><a title=\"Thermal Conduction \u2013 Heat Conduction\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/thermal-conduction\/\">Heat Conduction<\/a>.<\/strong> Heat conduction, also called diffusion, occurs within a body or between two bodies in contact. It is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary between two systems.<\/li>\n<li><strong><a title=\"Convection \u2013 Convective Heat Transfer\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/convection-convective-heat-transfer\/\">Heat Convection<\/a>.<\/strong> Heat convection depends on the motion of mass from one region of space to another. Heat convection occurs when the bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries heat along with the flow of matter in the fluid.<\/li>\n<li><strong><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/radiation-heat-transfer\/thermal-radiation-radiant-heat\/\">Thermal Radiation<\/a>.<\/strong> Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation, such as sunshine, with no need to be present in the space between bodies.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What is heat transfer used for?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<strong>What is heat transfer used for?<\/strong>\n<p>Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering systems and other aspects of life, and one does not need to go very far to see some application areas of heat transfer. Detailed knowledge of heat transfer mechanisms is also essential for reactor engineers as well as all other engineers.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What are the main parameters of heat exchangers?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<strong>What are the main parameters of heat exchangers?<\/strong>\n<p>Heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually involves convection in each fluid and thermal conduction through the wall separating the two fluids. In analyzing heat exchangers, \u00a0it is often convenient to work with an<strong><a title=\"Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient \u2013 U-factor\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/convection-convective-heat-transfer\/overall-heat-transfer-coefficient-u-factor\/\">\u00a0overall heat transfer coefficient<\/a>,\u00a0<\/strong>known as a\u00a0<strong>U-factor<\/strong>. The U-factor is defined by an expression analogous to\u00a0<strong><a title=\"Newton\u2019s Law of Cooling\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/convection-convective-heat-transfer\/newtons-law-of-cooling\/\">Newton\u2019s law of cooling<\/a>.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Moreover, engineers also use the logarithmic mean temperature difference (<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/heat-exchangers\/logarithmic-mean-temperature-difference-lmtd\/\"><strong>LMTD<\/strong><\/a>) to determine the temperature driving force for heat transfer in heat exchangers.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<p><strong>Nuclear engineering<\/strong> is the branch of engineering concerned with applying <a title=\"Nuclear Fission\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/fission\/\"><strong>nuclear fission<\/strong><\/a> and <a title=\"Nuclear Fusion\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-fusion\/\"><strong>nuclear fusion<\/strong><\/a> and applying other sub-atomic physics based on <a title=\"Atomic and Nuclear Physics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/\">nuclear physics<\/a> principles. <strong>Nuclear engineering<\/strong> generally\u00a0deals with applying <a title=\"Nuclear Energy\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-energy\/\"><strong>nuclear energy<\/strong><\/a> in various branches, including <a title=\"Nuclear Power Plant\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/\"><strong>nuclear power plants<\/strong><\/a>, naval propulsion systems, food production, or medical diagnostic equipment such as MRI machines.<\/p>\n<p>Our goal here will be to introduce the <strong>engineering of <a title=\"Nuclear Reactor\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/nuclear-reactor\/\">nuclear reactors<\/a><\/strong>, and deal with topics like <strong>fluid dynamics<\/strong>, <strong>power plant thermodynamics<\/strong>, <strong>reactor heat generation and removal<\/strong> (single-phase and two-phase coolant flow and heat transfer), <strong>materials in nuclear engineering,<\/strong> and <strong>structural mechanics<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<h2>Thermal-Hydraulic Considerations<\/h2>\n<p><strong>A nuclear power plant<\/strong> (nuclear power station) looks like a standard thermal power station with one exception. The heat source in the <a title=\"Nuclear Power Plant\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/\"><strong>nuclear power plant<\/strong><\/a> is a <a title=\"Nuclear Reactor\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/nuclear-reactor\/\"><strong>nuclear reactor<\/strong><\/a>. As is typical in all conventional thermal power stations, the heat is used <strong>to generate steam<\/strong> which <strong>drives a steam turbine<\/strong> connected to a generator that produces electricity. But in nuclear power plants, reactors produce an <strong>enormous amount of heat<\/strong> (energy) in a <strong>small volume<\/strong>. The density of the energy generation is<strong> very large,<\/strong> which puts demands on its heat transfer system (reactor coolant system). Therefore we have to start with the reactor heat generation and removal from the reactor.<\/p>\n<p>For a reactor to operate in a steady state, all of the heat released in the system must be removed <strong>as fast as it is produced<\/strong>. This is accomplished by passing a liquid or ga搜索引擎优化us coolant through the <a title=\"Reactor Core\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/nuclear-reactor-core\/\"><strong>core<\/strong><\/a> and through other regions where heat is generated. The heat transfer must be equal to or greater than the heat generation rate or overheating, and possible damage to the fuel may occur. The nature and operation of this coolant system are some of the most important considerations in designing a nuclear reactor.<\/p>\n<h2>Material Considerations<\/h2>\n<p>The temperature in an operating reactor varies from point to point within the system. Consequently, there is always <strong>one fuel rod<\/strong> and <strong>one local volume<\/strong> <strong>hotter<\/strong> than all the rest. <strong>Peak power limits<\/strong> must be introduced to limit these <strong>hot places<\/strong>. The peak power limits are associated with a<strong> boiling crisis<\/strong> and conditions that could cause fuel pellet melt. However, metallurgical considerations place <strong>upper limits<\/strong> on the temperature of the fuel cladding and the fuel pellet. Above these temperatures, there is a danger that the fuel may be damaged. One of the major objectives in the design of nuclear reactors is to remove the heat produced at the desired power level while assuring that the maximum fuel temperature and the maximum cladding temperature are always below these predetermined values.<\/p>\n<p>It must be noted that theoretically, there is no upper limit to the power level (from the <a title=\"Reactor Criticality\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-fission-chain-reaction\/reactor-criticality\/\">criticality<\/a> point of view), which can be attained by any <a title=\"Critical Reactor\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-fission-chain-reaction\/reactor-criticality\/critical-reactor\/\">critical reactor<\/a> having sufficient excess of<a title=\"Reactivity\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/nuclear-fission-chain-reaction\/reactivity\/\"> reactivity<\/a> to overcome its negative temperature coefficient. Nuclear reactors must be equipped with proper safety systems to avoid undesirable power changes.<\/p>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-100 lgc-tablet-grid-100 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\u00a0 <div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>References:<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\"><strong>Reactor Physics and Thermal Hydraulics:<\/strong>\n<ol>\n<li>J. R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading,\u00a0MA (1983).<\/li>\n<li>J. R. Lamarsh, A. J. Baratta, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 3d ed., Prentice-Hall, 2001, ISBN: 0-201-82498-1.<\/li>\n<li>W. M. Stacey, Nuclear Reactor Physics, John Wiley &amp; Sons, 2001, ISBN: 0- 471-39127-1.<\/li>\n<li>Glasstone, Sesonske. Nuclear Reactor Engineering: Reactor Systems Engineering,\u00a0Springer; 4th edition, 1994, ISBN:\u00a0978-0412985317<\/li>\n<li>Todreas Neil E., Kazimi Mujid S. Nuclear Systems Volume I: Thermal Hydraulic Fundamentals, Second Edition. CRC\u00a0Press; 2\u00a0edition, 2012, ISBN:\u00a0978-0415802871<\/li>\n<li>Zohuri B., McDaniel P. Thermodynamics in Nuclear Power Plant Systems. Springer; 2015, ISBN:\u00a0978-3-319-13419-2<\/li>\n<li>Moran Michal J., Shapiro Howard N. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, Fifth Edition,\u00a0John Wiley &amp; Sons, 2006, ISBN:\u00a0978-0-470-03037-0<\/li>\n<li>Kleinstreuer C. Modern Fluid Dynamics. Springer, 2010,\u00a0ISBN 978-1-4020-8670-0.<\/li>\n<li>U.S. Department of Energy, THERMODYNAMICS, HEAT TRANSFER, AND FLUID FLOW. DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Volume 1, 2, and 3. June 1992.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:15px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-default\" style=\"margin:15px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\"><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<h2>See above:<\/h2>\n<p>Home<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\" class=\"su-button su-button-style-flat\" style=\"color:#606060;background-color:#ffffff;border-color:#cccccc;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px\" target=\"_self\"><span style=\"color:#606060;padding:7px 20px;font-size:16px;line-height:24px;border-color:#ffffff;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px;text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-moz-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-webkit-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000\"><i class=\"sui sui-link\" style=\"font-size:16px;color:#5d5d5d\"><\/i> <\/span><\/a><\/p><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\"><\/div><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Nuclear engineering is the branch of engineering concerned with applying nuclear fission and nuclear fusion and applying other sub-atomic physics based on nuclear physics principles. Nuclear engineering generally\u00a0deals with applying nuclear energy in various branches, including nuclear power plants, naval propulsion systems, food production, or medical diagnostic equipment such as MRI machines. Our goal here &#8230; <a title=\"Thermal Engineering\" class=\"read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/\" aria-label=\"More on Thermal Engineering\">Read more<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"generate_page_header":""},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/14176"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=14176"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/14176\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":35175,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/14176\/revisions\/35175"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=14176"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}