{"id":16012,"date":"2017-11-30T18:47:06","date_gmt":"2017-11-30T18:47:06","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/?page_id=16012"},"modified":"2022-11-03T11:02:28","modified_gmt":"2022-11-03T11:02:28","slug":"thermodynamics","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/","title":{"rendered":"Thermodynamics"},"content":{"rendered":"<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-shadow-wrap sue-content-wrap sue-shadow-inline-no\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-shadow sue-shadow-style-vertical\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-panel\" data-url=\"\" data-target=\"self\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff;color:#333333;border-radius:0px;-moz-border-radius:0px;-webkit-border-radius:0px;box-shadow:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;border:1px solid #cccccc\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"sue-panel-content sue-content-wrap\" style=\"padding:15px;text-align:left\">\n<div class=\"su-heading su-heading-style-modern-1-dark su-heading-align-left\" id=\"\" style=\"font-size:13px;margin-bottom:20px\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-heading-inner\">\n<h2>Article Summary &amp; FAQs<\/h2>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<h3>What is thermodynamics?<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Thermodynamics<\/strong> is the science that deals with energy production, storage, transfer, and conversion. It studies the effects of\u00a0<a title=\"Work in Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/work-in-thermodynamics\/\">work<\/a>,\u00a0<a title=\"Heat in Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/heat-in-thermodynamics\/\">heat<\/a>,\u00a0and\u00a0<a title=\"What is Energy \u2013 Physics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/\">energy<\/a>\u00a0on a system. Despite the fact it is a\u00a0<strong>very broad subject<\/strong> that affects most fields of science, including biology and microelectronics, we will concern mostly with large-scale observations.<\/p>\n<h3>Key Facts<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>In\u00a0<strong>physics<\/strong> and\u00a0<strong>everyday life,<\/strong>\u00a0a\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-temperature-physics\/\"><strong>temperature<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0is an objective comparative measurement of\u00a0<strong>hot or cold<\/strong> based on our sense of touch. This definition is not a simple matter.<strong> The kinetic\u00a0theory<\/strong> of gases provides a microscopic explanation of temperature. It is based on the fact that part of the energy will transfer to the molecule of lower kinetic energy during an\u00a0<a title=\"Elastic Collisions\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/laws-of-conservation\/law-of-conservation-of-energy\/elastic-collisions\/\">elastic collision<\/a> between a molecule with high kinetic energy and one with low kinetic energy.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/\"><strong>Energy<\/strong><\/a> is generally defined as the\u00a0<strong>potential to do work<\/strong>\u00a0<strong>or produce heat<\/strong>. Sometimes it is like the \u201ccurrency\u201d for performing work. You must have the energy to accomplish work. To do 1 kilojoule of work, you must expend 1 kilojoule of energy.<\/li>\n<li>The\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/what-is-enthalpy\/enthalpy-nuclear-fuel\/\"><strong>enthalpy<\/strong><\/a> is the sum of the internal energy\u00a0<strong>E<\/strong>\u00a0plus the product of the pressure\u00a0<strong>p<\/strong>\u00a0and volume\u00a0<strong>V.<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>There are\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/\"><strong>four\u00a0laws of thermodynamics<\/strong><\/a> that define fundamental physical quantities (temperature, energy, and entropy) and characterize thermodynamic systems at\u00a0<a title=\"Thermal Equilibrium\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-temperature-physics\/thermal-equilibrium\/\"><strong>thermal equilibrium<\/strong><\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>The<strong>\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/ideal-gas-law\/ideal-gas-model\/\">ideal gas model<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0is used to predict the behavior of gases and is one of the most useful and commonly used substance models ever developed.<\/li>\n<li>A\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-processes\/\"><strong>thermodynamic process<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0is defined as a change from one equilibrium macrostate to another macrostate. The<strong>\u00a0initial<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>final states<\/strong>\u00a0are the defining elements of the process.<\/li>\n<li>The typical <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-cycles\/\"><strong>thermodynamic cycle<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0consists of a series of\u00a0<a title=\"Thermodynamic Processes\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-processes\/\">thermodynamic processes<\/a> transferring heat and work while varying pressure, temperature, and other state variables, eventually returning a system to its initial state.<\/li>\n<li>Today, the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-cycles\/rankine-cycle-steam-turbine-cycle\/\"><strong>Rankine cycle<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0is the fundamental operating cycle of\u00a0<strong>all thermal power plants<\/strong>\u00a0where an operating fluid is continuously evaporated and condensed.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:10px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What are the four laws of thermodynamics?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\"><strong>What are the four laws of thermodynamics?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The laws are as follows:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><a title=\"Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-temperature-physics\/zeroth-law-of-thermodynamics\/\"><strong>Zeroth law of thermodynamics:<\/strong><\/a> <em>If two systems are both in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>The<strong><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/\"> first<\/a><\/strong><a title=\"First Law of Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/\"><strong>\u00a0law of thermodynamics:<\/strong><\/a> <em>The increase in internal energy of a closed system is equal to the heat supplied to the system minus its work.\u00a0 <\/em><\/li>\n<li>The <a title=\"Second Law of Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/second-law-of-thermodynamics\/\"><strong>second law of thermodynamics:<\/strong><\/a> <em>The entropy of any isolated system never decreases. In a natural thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies of the interacting thermodynamic systems increases. <\/em><\/li>\n<li><a title=\"Third Law of Thermodynamics \u2013 3rd Law\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/third-law-of-thermodynamics-3rd-law\/\"><strong>Third law of thermodynamics:<\/strong><\/a> <em>The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What is thermodynamics used for?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<strong>What is thermodynamics used for?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Despite the fact it is a\u00a0<strong>very broad subject<\/strong> that affects most fields of science, including biology and microelectronics, we will concern mostly with large-scale observations. Knowledge of <strong>thermodynamics\u00a0<\/strong>is essential to <strong>engineers<\/strong>\u00a0who deal with power plants. Our goal here will be to introduce\u00a0<strong>thermodynamics as the energy conversion science and<\/strong>\u00a0introduce some of the fundamental concepts and definitions used in the study of <strong>engineering thermodynamics<\/strong>. These fundamental concepts and definitions will be further applied to energy systems and finally to\u00a0<strong>thermal<\/strong>\u00a0or\u00a0<strong>nuclear power plants<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-modern-light su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>What is the thermal efficiency of nuclear power plant?<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<strong>What is the thermal efficiency of nuclear power plants?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>In modern nuclear power plants, the overall <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/thermal-efficiency\/thermal-efficiency-of-nuclear-power-plants\/\">thermal efficiency<\/a>\u00a0is about\u00a0<strong>one-third\u00a0<\/strong>(33%), so\u00a0<strong>3000 MWth<\/strong>\u00a0of\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/neutron-diffusion-theory\/reactor-thermal-power\/\">thermal power<\/a>\u00a0from the fission reaction is needed to generate\u00a0<strong>1000 MWe<\/strong>\u00a0of electrical power.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<h2>Thermodynamics<\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/Thermodynamics-min.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-16017\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/Thermodynamics-min-300x86.png\" alt=\"thermodynamics - Boltzman equation\" width=\"300\" height=\"86\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/Thermodynamics-min-300x86.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/Thermodynamics-min.png 700w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><strong>Knowledge of thermodynamics <\/strong>is essential to <strong>nuclear engineers<\/strong>\u00a0who deal with <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/what-is-nuclear-reactor\/\">nuclear power reactors<\/a>. A <a title=\"Nuclear Power Plant\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/\"><strong>nuclear power plant<\/strong><\/a> (nuclear power station) looks like a standard thermal power station with one exception. The heat source in the nuclear power plant is a <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/what-is-nuclear-reactor\/\"><strong>nuclear reactor<\/strong><\/a>. As is typical in many conventional thermal power stations, the heat is used to generate steam which drives a <strong>steam turbine<\/strong> connected to a <strong>generator<\/strong> that produces electricity.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Thermodynamics<\/strong> is the science that deals with energy production, storage, transfer, and conversion. It studies the effects of <a title=\"Work in Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/work-in-thermodynamics\/\">work<\/a>, <a title=\"Heat in Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/heat-in-thermodynamics\/\">heat<\/a>, and <a title=\"What is Energy \u2013 Physics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/\">energy<\/a> on a system. Despite the fact it is a <strong>very broad subject<\/strong> that affects most fields of science, including biology and microelectronics, we will concern mostly with large-scale observations. Small-scale interactions will be described in the kinetic theory of gases.<\/p>\n<p>Historically, <strong>thermodynamics<\/strong> was born<strong> in the 19th century<\/strong> as scientists were first discovering how to build and operate<strong> steam engines<\/strong>, particularly through French physicist Nicolas L\u00e9onard Sadi Carnot, who introduced the concept of the <strong>heat-engine cycle<\/strong> and the principle of reversibility in 1824. Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854. Carnot\u2019s work concerned the limitations on the maximum amount of work obtained from a steam engine operating with a high-temperature heat transfer as its driving force. In later years the <strong>laws of thermodynamics<\/strong> were developed. <strong>Thermodynamics<\/strong> is principally based on <strong>four laws<\/strong> that are <strong>universally valid<\/strong> when applied to systems that fall within the constraints implied by each.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_16026\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-16026\" style=\"width: 290px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/12\/Thermodynamic-Cycles-min.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-16026\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/12\/Thermodynamic-Cycles-min-300x277.png\" alt=\"engineering thermodynamics\" width=\"300\" height=\"277\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/12\/Thermodynamic-Cycles-min-300x277.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/12\/Thermodynamic-Cycles-min.png 650w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-16026\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Rankine Cycle &#8211; Thermodynamics as Energy Conversion Science<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong>Thermodynamics<\/strong> is both a branch of <strong>physics<\/strong> and <strong>engineering science<\/strong>. <strong>The physicist<\/strong> is normally interested in gaining a <strong>fundamental understanding<\/strong> of the physical and chemical behavior of fixed quantities of matter at rest and uses the laws of thermodynamics to relate the properties of matter. <strong>Engineers<\/strong> are generally interested in studying<strong> energy systems<\/strong> and how they interact with their surroundings. To facilitate this, engineers extend the subject of thermodynamics to the study of <a title=\"Open System \u2013 Closed System \u2013 Isolated System\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/laws-of-conservation\/law-of-conservation-of-energy\/open-system-closed-system-isolated-system\/\"><strong>open systems<\/strong><\/a>, in which heat, work, and mass can be directed into or out of the control volume.<\/p>\n<p>Our goal here will be to introduce <strong>thermodynamics as the energy conversion science <\/strong>and\u00a0introduce some of the fundamental concepts and definitions used in the study of <strong>engineering thermodynamics<\/strong>. These fundamental concepts and definitions will be further applied to energy systems and finally to <strong>thermal<\/strong> or\u00a0<strong>nuclear power plants<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_20\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-20\" style=\"width: 290px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/Nuclear_Plant.gif\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-20\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/Nuclear_Plant-300x172.gif\" alt=\"Nuclear power plant description\" width=\"300\" height=\"172\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/Nuclear_Plant-300x172.gif 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/10\/Nuclear_Plant-1024x587.gif 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-20\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Main features of nuclear power plants with PWR-type (Pressurized Water Reactor) reactor.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>A typical <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/\"><strong>nuclear power plant<\/strong><\/a> has an electric-generating capacity of <strong>1000 MWe<\/strong>. The heat source in the nuclear power plant is a <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/what-is-nuclear-reactor\/\"><strong>nuclear reactor<\/strong><\/a>. As is typical in all conventional thermal power stations, the heat is used to generate steam which drives a <strong>steam turbine<\/strong> connected to a generator that produces electricity. The turbines are heat engines subject to the efficiency limitations imposed by the <strong>second law of thermodynamics<\/strong>. In modern nuclear power plants, the overall thermodynamic efficiency is about <strong>one-third <\/strong>(33%), so <strong>3000 MWth<\/strong> of thermal power from the fission reaction is needed to generate <strong>1000 MWe<\/strong> of electrical power.<\/p>\n<p>In the following sections, we will deal with the problem, how to <strong>transform the thermal energy<\/strong> generated inside the reactor into <strong>electrical energy<\/strong> in a <strong>most effective way<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"collapsible-container\">\n<h2>Laws of Thermodynamics<\/h2>\n<p>There are <strong>four\u00a0laws of thermodynamics<\/strong> that define fundamental physical quantities (temperature, energy, and entropy) and characterize thermodynamic systems at <a title=\"Thermal Equilibrium\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-temperature-physics\/thermal-equilibrium\/\"><strong>thermal equilibrium<\/strong><\/a>. These are considered as one of the most important laws in all of physics. The laws are as follows:<\/p>\n<p><a title=\"Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-temperature-physics\/zeroth-law-of-thermodynamics\/\"><strong>Zeroth law of thermodynamics:<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<p><em>If two systems are both in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are in thermal equilibrium. \u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This law provides a definition and method of defining temperatures, perhaps the most important intensive property of a system when dealing with thermal energy conversion problems.<\/p>\n<p>The <a title=\"First Law of Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/\"><strong>first law of thermodynamics:<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<p><em>The increase in internal energy of a closed system is equal to the heat supplied to the system minus its work. \u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This law is the <a title=\"Law of Conservation of Energy\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/laws-of-conservation\/law-of-conservation-of-energy\/\"><strong>principle of conservation of energy<\/strong><\/a>. It is the most important law for analyzing most systems and quantifying how thermal energy is <strong>transformed<\/strong> to other <a title=\"Forms of Energy\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/forms-of-energy\/\">forms of energy<\/a>. It follows perpetual motion machines of the first kind are impossible.<\/p>\n<p>The <a title=\"Second Law of Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/second-law-of-thermodynamics\/\"><strong>second law of thermodynamics:<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<p><em>The entropy of any isolated system never decreases. In a natural thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies of the interacting thermodynamic systems increases. \u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This law indicates the <strong>irreversibility<\/strong> of <strong>natural processes<\/strong>. <a title=\"Reversible Process\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-processes\/reversible-process\/\">Reversible processes<\/a> are a useful and convenient theoretical fiction but do not occur in nature. From this law, it is impossible to construct a device that operates on a cycle and whose sole effect is the transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter body. It follows perpetual motion machines of the second kind are impossible.<\/p>\n<p><a title=\"Third Law of Thermodynamics \u2013 3rd Law\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/third-law-of-thermodynamics-3rd-law\/\"><strong>Third law of thermodynamics:<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n<p><em>The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Based on empirical evidence, this law states that the <strong><a title=\"What is Entropy\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/what-is-entropy\/\">entropy <\/a>of a pure crystalline substance is zero<\/strong> at the <strong>absolute zero of temperature<\/strong>, 0 K and that it is impossible using any process, no matter how idealized, to reduce the temperature of a system to absolute zero in a finite number of steps. This allows us to define a zero point for the thermal energy of a body.<\/p>\n<h2>Popular Version of the Laws of Thermodynamics<\/h2>\n<p><strong>0. You must play the game.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>1. You can\u2019t win; you can only break even.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>2. You can only break even at absolute zero.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>3. You can\u2019t reach absolute zero.<\/strong><\/p>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Popular version of the laws<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">Popular version of the consequences of the first, second, and third laws of thermodynamics:<\/p>\n<p>0. You must play the game.<\/p>\n<p>1. <strong>You can\u2019t win.<\/strong> (the consequence of the first law of thermodynamics)<\/p>\n<p>2.<strong> You can\u2019t break even.<\/strong> (the consequence of the second law of thermodynamics)<\/p>\n<p>3. <strong>You can\u2019t even get out of the game.<\/strong> (the consequence of the third law of thermodynamics)<\/p>\n<p>It is sometimes stated as a general adage without specific reference to the laws of thermodynamics.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Another variant:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1. You can\u2019t win; you can only break even.<\/p>\n<p>2. You can only break even at absolute zero.<\/p>\n<p>3. You can\u2019t reach absolute zero.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h2>Extensive Properties &#8211; Intensive Properties<\/h2>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Extensive Properties - Intesive Properties<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">Thermodynamic properties can be divided into two general classes:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Extensive properties:<\/strong> An <strong>extensive property<\/strong> depends on the <strong>amount of mass<\/strong> present or upon the <strong>size or extent of a system<\/strong>. <strong>Mass, total volume, and energy<\/strong> are examples of <strong>extensive properties<\/strong>. The value of an extensive property varies directly with the mass. Thus, if a quantity of matter in a given state is divided into two equal parts, each part will have the same value of the intensive property as the original and half the value of the extensive property. <strong>Extensive properties are additive<\/strong> for subsystems. The system could be divided into any number of subsystems, and the value of the property for the system would be the sum of the property for each subsystem.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Intensive property:<\/strong> An<strong> intensive property<\/strong> is <strong>independent of the amount<\/strong> of mass and may vary from place to place within the system at any moment. \u00a0For example, the temperature of a system in thermal equilibrium is the same as the temperature of any part. If the system is divided, the temperature of each subsystem is identical. <strong>Temperature, pressure, specific volume<\/strong>, and <strong>density<\/strong> are examples of intensive properties. Specific quantities are also referred to as intensive variables, though some intensive variables have no extensive counterpart, such as pressure or temperature. Intensive properties may be functions of both position and time, whereas extensive properties vary at most with time.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Specific Properties<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\"><strong>Specific properties<\/strong> of the material <strong>are<\/strong> <strong>derived<\/strong> from other intensive and extensive properties of that material. For example, the <strong>density<\/strong> of water is an intensive property. It can be derived from measurements of the mass of a water volume (an extensive property) divided by the volume (another extensive property). Also, <strong>heat capacity<\/strong>, an extensive property of a system, can be derived from <strong>heat capacity<\/strong>, <strong><em>C<\/em><em><sub>p<\/sub><\/em><\/strong>, and the <b>system\u2019s mass<\/b>. Dividing these extensive properties gives the <strong>specific heat capacity<\/strong>, <strong><em>c<\/em><em><sub>p<\/sub><\/em><\/strong>, which is an <strong>intensive property<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>Specific properties are often used in reference tables as a means of recording material data in a manner that is independent of size or mass. They are <strong>very useful for making comparisons<\/strong> about one attribute while canceling out the effect of variations in another attribute.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_16029\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-16029\" style=\"width: 698px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/12\/Table-of-specific-properties-thermodynamics.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-full wp-image-16029\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/12\/Table-of-specific-properties-thermodynamics.png\" alt=\"Specific properties - thermodynamics\" width=\"708\" height=\"306\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/12\/Table-of-specific-properties-thermodynamics.png 708w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/12\/Table-of-specific-properties-thermodynamics-300x130.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 708px) 100vw, 708px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-16029\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Table of some specific properties<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h2>What is Energy<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_240\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-240\" style=\"width: 290px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/11\/Sun.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-240\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/11\/Sun-300x298.jpg\" alt=\"The Sun\" width=\"300\" height=\"298\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/11\/Sun-300x298.jpg 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/11\/Sun-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/11\/Sun.jpg 510w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-240\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Sun generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. At its core, the Sun fuses 620 million metric tons of hydrogen each second.<br \/>Source: hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The term<a title=\"What is Energy \u2013 Physics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/\"><strong> <em>energy <\/em><\/strong><\/a>is very broad, and it has many definitions. Technically, <strong>energy<\/strong> is a <strong>scalar physical quantity<\/strong> that is associated with the state of one or more objects. Energy is generally defined as the <strong>potential to do <a title=\"Work in Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/work-in-thermodynamics\/\">work<\/a><\/strong> <strong>or produce <a title=\"Heat and Work in Thermodynamics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/heat-and-work-in-thermodynamics\/\">heat<\/a><\/strong>. Sometimes it is like the \u201ccurrency\u201d for performing work. You must have the energy to accomplish work. To do 1 kilojoule of work, you must expend 1 kilojoule of energy. It must be added. This interpretation can be misleading because energy is not necessarily available to do work.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most wonderful properties of the universe is that <strong>energy<\/strong> <strong>can be transformed<\/strong> from one type to another and <strong>transferred<\/strong> from one object to another. Moreover, when transformed from one type to another and transferred from one object to another, the <strong>total amount of energy is always the same<\/strong>. It is one of the elementary properties of the universe.<\/p>\n<p>For example, burning gasoline to power cars is an energy conversion process we rely on. The <strong>chemical energy<\/strong> in gasoline is<strong> converted<\/strong> to<strong> thermal energy<\/strong>, then converted to <strong>mechanical energy<\/strong> that makes the car move. The <strong>mechanical energy<\/strong> has been converted to <strong>kinetic energy<\/strong>. When we use the brakes to stop a car, that<strong> kinetic energy<\/strong> is converted by friction back to heat or <strong>thermal energy<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<h2>Heat Engines<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_16900\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-16900\" style=\"width: 290px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/02\/heat-engine-example.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-16900\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/02\/heat-engine-example-300x224.png\" alt=\"Example of Heat Engine\" width=\"300\" height=\"224\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/02\/heat-engine-example-300x224.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/02\/heat-engine-example.png 449w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-16900\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Rankine cycle closely describes the processes in steam-operated heat engines commonly found in most thermal power plants.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/energy-sources\/\"><strong>Energy sources<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0have always played a very important role in the development of human society.\u00a0<strong><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/\">Energy<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0is generally defined as the\u00a0<strong>potential to do\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/work-in-thermodynamics\/\">work<\/a><\/strong>\u00a0<strong>or produce<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/laws-of-thermodynamics\/first-law-of-thermodynamics\/heat-in-thermodynamics\/\">\u00a0heat<\/a><\/strong>. Sometimes it is like the \u201ccurrency\u201d for performing work. One of the most wonderful properties of the universe is that <strong>energy can be transformed from one type to another<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>transferred from one object to another<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>In general, it is easy to produce\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/internal-energy-thermal-energy\/\"><strong>thermal energy<\/strong><\/a>\u00a0<strong>by doing work<\/strong>, for example, by any frictional process. But to <strong>get work from thermal energy<\/strong>\u00a0is more\u00a0<strong>difficult<\/strong>. It is closely associated with the<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/what-is-entropy\/\">\u00a0concept of entropy<\/a>. For example, electricity is particularly useful since it has\u00a0<strong>very<\/strong>\u00a0<strong>low entropy<\/strong>\u00a0(is highly ordered) and can be converted into other forms of energy<strong>\u00a0very efficiently<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/what-is-mechanical-energy\/\">mechanical energy<\/a> is directly available, for example, wind power and hydropower. But most of our energy comes from burning <strong>fossil fuels<\/strong> (coal, oil, and gas) and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/nuclear-reactions\/\"><strong>nuclear reactions<\/strong><\/a>. At present, fossil fuel is still the world\u2019s predominant energy source. But the burning of fossil fuels generates <strong>only thermal energy<\/strong>. Therefore these energy sources are so-called \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/primary-energy-sources\/\"><strong>primary energy sources<\/strong><\/a>\u201d that must<strong>\u00a0be converted<\/strong> to the\u00a0<strong><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/secondary-energy-sources-energy-carriers\/\">secondary energy source<\/a><\/strong>, so-called <strong>energy carriers\u00a0<\/strong>(<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/electrical-energy\/\">electrical energy<\/a>, etc.). A <strong>heat engine<\/strong> must be used to convert thermal energy into another form of energy.<\/p>\n<p>In general, a\u00a0<strong>heat engine<\/strong> is a device that converts chemical energy to heat or thermal energy and then to mechanical energy or electrical energy.<\/p>\n<p>The Rankine cycle closely describes the processes in steam-operated heat engines commonly found in most thermal power plants.<\/p>\n<p>Many<strong>\u00a0heat engines<\/strong> operate cyclically, adding energy in the form of heat in one part of the cycle and using that energy to do useful work in another part of the cycle.<br \/>\nFor example, as is typical in all conventional\u00a0<strong>thermal power plants,<\/strong>\u00a0the heat is used to generate\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/materials-nuclear-engineering\/properties-steam-what-is-steam\/\">steam<\/a>\u00a0which drives a\u00a0<strong>steam turbine<\/strong> connected to a generator that produces electricity.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/steam-generator\/\">Steam generators<\/a>, steam turbines, condensers, and feedwater pumps constitute a <strong>heat engine<\/strong> subject to the efficiency limitations imposed by the\u00a0<strong>second law of thermodynamics<\/strong>. In modern\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/\">nuclear power plants<\/a>,\u00a0the overall thermodynamic efficiency is about\u00a0<strong>one-third\u00a0<\/strong>(33%), so\u00a0<strong>3000 MWth<\/strong>\u00a0of thermal power from the fission reaction is needed to generate\u00a0<strong>1000 MWe<\/strong>\u00a0of electrical power.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:20px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-100 lgc-tablet-grid-100 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\u00a0 <div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>References:<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\"><strong>Nuclear and Reactor Physics:<\/strong>\n<ol>\n<li>J. R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading,\u00a0MA (1983).<\/li>\n<li>J. R. Lamarsh, A. J. Baratta, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 3d ed., Prentice-Hall, 2001, ISBN: 0-201-82498-1.<\/li>\n<li>W. M. Stacey, Nuclear Reactor Physics, John Wiley &amp; Sons, 2001, ISBN: 0- 471-39127-1.<\/li>\n<li>Glasstone, Sesonske. Nuclear Reactor Engineering: Reactor Systems Engineering,\u00a0Springer; 4th edition, 1994, ISBN:\u00a0978-0412985317<\/li>\n<li>W.S.C. Williams. Nuclear and Particle Physics.\u00a0Clarendon Press; 1 edition, 1991, ISBN:\u00a0978-0198520467<\/li>\n<li>Kenneth S. Krane. Introductory Nuclear Physics, 3rd Edition, Wiley, 1987,\u00a0ISBN:\u00a0978-0471805533<\/li>\n<li>G.R.Keepin. Physics of Nuclear Kinetics.\u00a0Addison-Wesley Pub. Co; 1st edition, 1965<\/li>\n<li>Robert Reed Burn, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Operation, 1988.<\/li>\n<li>U.S. Department of Energy, Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory.\u00a0DOE Fundamentals Handbook,\u00a0Volume 1 and 2.\u00a0January\u00a01993.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><strong><\/strong><strong>Advanced Reactor Physics:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>K. O. Ott, W. A. Bezella, Introductory Nuclear Reactor Statics, American Nuclear Society, Revised edition (1989), 1989, ISBN: 0-894-48033-2.<\/li>\n<li>K. O. Ott, R. J. Neuhold, Introductory Nuclear Reactor Dynamics, American Nuclear Society, 1985, ISBN: 0-894-48029-4.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-weight: 400;\">D. L. Hetrick, Dynamics of Nuclear Reactors, American Nuclear Society, 1993, ISBN: 0-894-48453-2.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li>E. E. Lewis, W. F. Miller, Computational Methods of Neutron Transport, American Nuclear Society, 1993, ISBN: 0-894-48452-4.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:15px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-default\" style=\"margin:15px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\"><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<h2>See above:<\/h2>\n<p>Nuclear Engineering<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/\" class=\"su-button su-button-style-flat\" style=\"color:#606060;background-color:#ffffff;border-color:#cccccc;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px\" target=\"_self\"><span style=\"color:#606060;padding:7px 20px;font-size:16px;line-height:24px;border-color:#ffffff;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px;text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-moz-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-webkit-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000\"><i class=\"sui sui-link\" style=\"font-size:16px;color:#5d5d5d\"><\/i> <\/span><\/a><\/p><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\"><\/div><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Thermodynamics Knowledge of thermodynamics is essential to nuclear engineers\u00a0who deal with nuclear power reactors. A nuclear power plant (nuclear power station) looks like a standard thermal power station with one exception. The heat source in the nuclear power plant is a nuclear reactor. As is typical in many conventional thermal power stations, the heat is &#8230; <a title=\"Thermodynamics\" class=\"read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/\" aria-label=\"More on Thermodynamics\">Read more<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":14176,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"generate_page_header":""},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/16012"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=16012"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/16012\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":34367,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/16012\/revisions\/34367"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/14176"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=16012"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}