{"id":25765,"date":"2019-12-15T18:39:46","date_gmt":"2019-12-15T18:39:46","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/?page_id=25765"},"modified":"2023-06-20T07:49:19","modified_gmt":"2023-06-20T07:49:19","slug":"radon-health-effects-health-risks","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/radiation-protection\/sources-of-radiation\/radon-health-effects-health-risks\/","title":{"rendered":"Radon &#8211; Health Effects &#8211; Health Risks"},"content":{"rendered":"<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-100 lgc-tablet-grid-100 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<p><strong>Radon<\/strong> is a colorless, odorless, tasteless <strong>noble gas<\/strong>, occurring naturally as the decay product of radium. All isotopes of radon are <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/radioactive-decay\/\">radioactive<\/a>, but the two radon isotopes <strong>radon-222<\/strong> and <strong>radon-220<\/strong> are very important from radiation protection point of view.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<figure id=\"attachment_25771\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-25771\" style=\"width: 290px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-and-thoron.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-25771\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-and-thoron-300x300.png\" alt=\"radon and thoron\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-and-thoron-300x300.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-and-thoron-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-and-thoron.png 644w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-25771\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Source: JANIS (Java-based Nuclear Data Information Software); ENDF\/B-VII.1<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong>Radon-222<\/strong>. The radon-222 isotope is a natural decay product of the most stable uranium isotope (uranium-238). Thus it is a member of the <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/radioactive-decay\/radioactive-decay-chain\/radioactive-series-radioactive-cascade\/uranium-series\/\">uranium series<\/a>.<\/p><\/li>\n<li><strong>Radon-220<\/strong>. The radon-220 isotope, commonly referred to as <strong>thoron<\/strong>, \u00a0is a natural decay product of the most stable thorium isotope (<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power-plant\/nuclear-fuel\/thorium\/\">thorium-232<\/a>). Thus it is a member of the <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/radioactive-decay\/radioactive-decay-chain\/radioactive-series-radioactive-cascade\/thorium-series\/\">thorium series<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>It is important to note that radon is a <strong>noble gas<\/strong>, whereas all its decay products are <strong>metals<\/strong>. The main mechanism for the entry of radon into the atmosphere is <strong>diffusion through the soil<\/strong>. As a gas, radon diffuses through rocks and the soil. When radon disintegrates, the daughter metallic isotopes are ions that will be attached to other molecules like water and aerosol particles in the air. Therefore all discussions of radon concentrations in the environment refer to <strong>radon-222<\/strong>. While the average rate of production of radon-220 (thoron) is about the same as that of radon-222, the amount of radon-220 in the environment is much less than that of radon-222 because of the significantly shorter half-life (it has less time to diffuse) of radon-222 (55 seconds, versus 3.8 days respectively). Simply radon-220 has a lower chance of escaping from bedrock.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Radon-222<\/strong><\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_25768\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-25768\" style=\"width: 290px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-source-environment.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-25768\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-source-environment-300x170.png\" alt=\"radon - source - environment\" width=\"300\" height=\"170\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-source-environment-300x170.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-source-environment-768x435.png 768w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-source-environment-1024x580.png 1024w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-source-environment.png 1152w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-25768\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Uranium Series &#8211; Source of radon-222.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong>Radon-222<\/strong> is a gas produced by the decay of radium-226. Both are a part of the natural uranium series. Since uranium is found in soil worldwide in varying concentrations, the dose of ga搜索引擎优化us radon varies worldwide. <strong>Radon-222<\/strong> is the most important and most stable isotope of radon. It has a half-life of only <strong>3.8 days<\/strong>, making radon one of the rarest elements since it decays away quickly. An important source of natural radiation is radon gas, which seeps continuously from bedrock but can accumulate in poorly ventilated houses because of its high density. The fact <strong>radon is gas<\/strong> plays a crucial role in the spreading of all its daughter nuclei. Simply radon is a transport medium from bedrock to the atmosphere (or inside buildings) for its short-lived decay products (<strong>Pb-210<\/strong> and <strong>Po-210<\/strong>), which posses much more health risks.<\/p>\n<h2>Health Effects of Radon<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Radon<\/strong> is usually the largest natural source of radiation contributing to the exposure of public members, sometimes accounting for <strong>half the total exposure<\/strong> from all sources. The health risk due to exposure to <strong>radon<\/strong> and <strong>thoron<\/strong> comes principally from the inhalation of the short-lived decay products (Pb-210 and Po-210) and the resulting <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/alpha-particle\/\">alpha-particle<\/a> irradiation of the bronchi and the lungs.<\/p>\n<p>As long as these isotopes are outside the body, only the <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/photon\/gamma-ray\/\">gamma radiation<\/a> will be able to give a dose. But radon is a gas that diffuses from the ground to mix with air. The half-life of radon-222 is long compared with the residence time of air in the lungs so that relatively little radon decay during respiration. Moreover, radon is a noble gas, and its inertness prevents its long-term retention within the body. But when radon disintegrates, the <strong>daughter metallic isotopes<\/strong> (<strong>Pb-210<\/strong> and <strong>Po-210<\/strong>) are not inert and are attached to other molecules like water and aerosol particles in the air. When these particles are inhaled, some of lead-210 is retained by the body. Ingestion of lead-210 is also a possible way. Since lead-210 is a weak beta emitter, it does not cause major doses. Lead-210 is thus a transport medium from indoor air to the body. The radiation from radon and its decay products is a mixture of alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma radiation. When the isotopes come inside the body, all types of radiation contribute.<\/p>\n<p>But it is the <strong>polonium-210<\/strong>, the decay product of lead-210, that emits a <strong>5.3 MeV alpha particle<\/strong>, which provides most of the <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/radiation-protection\/equivalent-dose\/\">equivalent dose<\/a>. <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/fundamental-particles\/alpha-particle\/\">Alpha particles<\/a> that belong to <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/radiation-protection\/radiobiology\/high-let-and-low-let-radiation\/\">high-LET radiation<\/a> are fairly massive and carry a double positive charge. They tend to travel only a short distance and do not penetrate very far into a tissue, if at all. However, alpha particles will deposit their energy over a smaller volume (possibly only a few cells if they enter a body) and cause more damage to those few cells (more than 80 % of the absorbed energy from radon is due to the alpha particles). Therefore, the <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/radiation-protection\/equivalent-dose\/radiation-weighting-factor\/\">radiation weighting factor<\/a> for alpha radiation is equal to <strong>20<\/strong>. An <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/radiation-protection\/absorbed-dose\/\">absorbed dose<\/a> of 1 mGy by alpha particles will lead to an equivalent dose of 20 mSv. In summary, radon and lead can be viewed as different sorts of carriers for polonium-210.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/Radon-Natural-Source-of-Radiation.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-25690\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/Radon-Natural-Source-of-Radiation-300x212.png\" alt=\"Radon - Natural Source of Radiation\" width=\"300\" height=\"212\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/Radon-Natural-Source-of-Radiation-300x212.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/Radon-Natural-Source-of-Radiation.png 678w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a>The amount of isotopes ingested with the food is negligible, and all concern is the breathing and the deposition of radon daughters in the bronchi and the lungs. Among non-smokers, radon is the largest cause of lung cancer and, overall, the second-leading cause. The average annual radiation dose to a person from radon is about <strong>2 mSv\/year,<\/strong> which may vary over many orders of magnitude from place to place. According to a 2003 report, EPA&#8217;s Assessment of Risks from Radon in Homes, epidemiological evidence shows a clear link between lung cancer and high concentrations of radon.<\/p>\n<p>It must be emphasized that cigarettes also contain polonium-210, originating from the decay products of radon, which stick to tobacco leaves. Polonium-210 emits a 5.3 MeV alpha particle, which provides most of the equivalent dose. Heavy smoking results in a dose of 160 mSv\/year to localized spots at the bifurcations of segmental bronchi in the lungs from the decay of polonium-210. This dose is not readily comparable to the <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/radiation-protection\/protection-from-exposures\/dose-limits-radiation\/\">radiation protection limits<\/a> since the latter deal with whole-body doses. In contrast, the dose from smoking is delivered to a very small portion of the body.<\/p>\n<h2>Radon inside Houses<\/h2>\n<p>It must be emphasized that the concentrations of radon-222 and radon-220 in the soil and the building materials vary over many orders of magnitude from place to place and show significant time variation at any given site. Locations with higher radon backgrounds are well mapped in each country. In the open air, it ranges from 1 to 100 Bq\/m3, even less (0.1 Bq\/m3) above the ocean. In caves or aerated mines, or ill-aerated houses, its concentration climbs to 20\u20132,000 Bq\/m3. In the outdoor atmosphere, some advection is also caused by wind and changes in barometric pressure.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_25769\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-25769\" style=\"width: 290px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-mitigation-house.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-25769\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-mitigation-house-300x249.png\" alt=\"radon - mitigation - house\" width=\"300\" height=\"249\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-mitigation-house-300x249.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/12\/radon-mitigation-house.png 480w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-25769\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The radon gas can penetrate the house through cracks (due to a chimney effect) in the floor and walls of the basement. Source: suro.cz<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Problems with <strong>radon<\/strong> are in houses, where it can <strong>accumulate<\/strong> especially, due to its high density, in low areas such as <strong>basements<\/strong> and <strong>crawl spaces<\/strong>. <strong>Radon<\/strong> can also occur in groundwater \u2013 for example, in some spring waters and hot springs. Several possibilities exist for the release of radon into houses. The fact radon is a noble gas plays a crucial role in the spreading of all its daughter nuclei. Simply radon is a transport medium from bedrock to the atmosphere (or inside buildings) for its short-lived decay products (Pb-210 and Po-210), which posses much more health risks. The main sources are the rock or soil on which the house is built and the water supply. The main mechanism for the entry of radon into buildings is <strong>diffusion through the soil<\/strong>. As a gas, radon diffuses through rocks and the soil. The radon gas can penetrate the house <strong>through cracks<\/strong> (due to a chimney effect) in the floor and walls of the basement. The heating of the air creates a suction of air from the lower part of the house towards the higher part of the house. Without any radon membrane, air from the ground beneath the house is sucked into the house through numerous <strong>floor cracks and openings<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>Furthermore, the<strong> building materials<\/strong> (e.g., some granites) are also a source of radon. Another source of radon in the water supply. Water from wells may contain high radon concentrations, particularly in regions with radium-rich granite. This is material with higher uranium\/radium concentrations from which radon is continuously generated. Such materials, e.g., slag, fly ash, etc., could be used in some locations. The critical limits for the specific radium concentrations must be determined for building materials used for the construction of houses.<\/p>\n<p>The greatest risk of radon exposure arises in buildings that are airtight, insufficiently ventilated, and have foundation leaks that allow air from the soil into basements and dwelling rooms. The inside radon level varies considerably with the weather, time of the year, and even time of the day \u2013 and, of course, with the airing system. For example, sleeping with an open window can considerably reduce radon content.<\/p>\n<p>Most countries have adopted a radon concentration of 200\u2013400 Bq\/m<sup>3<\/sup> for indoor air as an Action or Reference Level. If testing shows levels less than 4 picocuries radon per liter of air (150 Bq\/m<sup>3<\/sup>), then no action is necessary. Very high radon concentrations (&gt;1000 Bq\/m<sup>3<\/sup>) have been found in houses built on soils with a high uranium content and\/or high ground permeability.<\/p>\n<h2>Mitigation of Radon<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Mitigation of radon<\/strong> in the air is accomplished through <strong>ventilation<\/strong>, collected below a concrete floor slab or a <strong>membrane<\/strong> on the ground, or by increasing the air changes per hour in the building. Radon resisting membranes are usually produced from low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and extended across the whole building, including the floor and walls. Another way to mitigate radon is a treatment system using aeration or activated charcoal to remove radon from domestic water supplies.<\/p>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>Properties of Radon<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<p><strong>Radon<\/strong> is a chemical element with <a title=\"Atomic Number\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/atomic-nuclear-structure\/atomic-number-proton-number\/\">atomic number<\/a> <strong>86,<\/strong> which means there are 86 protons and 86 electrons in the atomic structure. The <strong>chemical symbol<\/strong> for Radon is <strong>Rn<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>Radon is a radioactive, colorless, odorless, tasteless noble gas. Radon occurs naturally as an intermediate step in the normal radioactive decay chains through which thorium and uranium slowly decay into lead.<\/p>\n<h2>Radon &#8211; Properties<\/h2>\n<table width=\"100%\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th align=\"left\">Element<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\">Radon<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Atomic Number<\/td>\n<td>86<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Symbol<\/td>\n<td>Rn<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Element Category<\/td>\n<td>Noble Gas<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Phase at STP<\/td>\n<td>Gas<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Atomic Mass [amu]<\/td>\n<td>222<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Density at STP [g\/cm3]<\/td>\n<td>9.73<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Electron Configuration<\/td>\n<td>[Hg] 6p6<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Possible Oxidation States<\/td>\n<td>0<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Electron Affinity [kJ\/mol]<\/td>\n<td>&#8212;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Electronegativity [Pauling scale]<\/td>\n<td>&#8212;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>1st Ionization Energy [eV]<\/td>\n<td>10.7485<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Year of Discovery<\/td>\n<td>1900<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Discoverer<\/td>\n<td>Dorn, Friedrich Ernst<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th align=\"left\">Thermal properties<\/th>\n<th align=\"left\"><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Melting Point [Celsius scale]<\/td>\n<td>-71<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Boiling Point [Celsius scale]<\/td>\n<td>-61.8<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Thermal Conductivity\u00a0[W\/m K]<\/td>\n<td>0.00361<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Specific Heat [J\/g K]<\/td>\n<td>0.09<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Heat of Fusion [kJ\/mol]<\/td>\n<td>2.89<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Heat of Vaporization [kJ\/mol]<\/td>\n<td>16.4<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3>Atomic Mass of Radon<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Atomic mass of Radon is 222 u.\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Note that each element may contain more isotopes. Therefore this resulting atomic mass is calculated from naturally-occurring isotopes and their abundance.<\/p>\n<p>The unit of measure for mass is the\u00a0<strong>atomic mass unit (amu)<\/strong>. One atomic mass unit is equal to 1.66 x 10<sup>-24<\/sup>\u00a0grams. One unified atomic mass unit is <strong>approximately<\/strong> the mass of one nucleon (either a single proton or neutron) and is numerically equivalent to 1 g\/mol.<\/p>\n<h3>Density\u00a0of Radon<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Density\u00a0of Radon is\u00a0<\/strong><b>9.73g\/cm<sup>3<\/sup><\/b>.<br \/>\n<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/12\/Density-Gas-Liquid-Solid-min.png?c3bb24\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"wp-image-16264 size-medium alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/12\/Density-Gas-Liquid-Solid-min-241x300.png?c3bb24\" alt=\"Density - Gas - Liquid - Solid\" width=\"241\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/12\/Density-Gas-Liquid-Solid-min-241x300.png 241w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/12\/Density-Gas-Liquid-Solid-min.png 372w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 241px) 100vw, 241px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Typical densities of various substances at atmospheric pressure.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Density<\/strong> is defined as the <strong>mass per unit volume<\/strong>. It is an <a title=\"Extensive and Intensive Properties\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/extensive-and-intensive-properties\/\"><strong>intensive property<\/strong><\/a>, which is mathematically defined as mass divided by volume:<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u03c1 = m\/V<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>In words, the density (\u03c1) of a substance is the total mass (m) of that substance divided by the total volume (V) occupied by that substance. The standard SI unit is <strong>kilograms per cubic meter<\/strong> (<strong>kg\/m<sup>3<\/sup><\/strong>). The Standard English unit is <strong>pounds mass per cubic foot<\/strong> (<strong>lbm\/ft<sup>3<\/sup><\/strong>).<\/p>\n<p>See also: <a title=\"What is Density \u2013 Physics\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-density-physics\/\">What is Density<\/a><\/p>\n<p>See also: <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-density-physics\/densest-materials-on-the-earth\/\">Densest Materials of the Earth<\/a><\/p>\n<h3>Radon &#8211; Melting Point and Boiling Point<\/h3>\n<p><strong>The Melting point of the Radon is <\/strong><b>-71\u00b0C<\/b>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>The Boiling point of the Radon is <\/strong><b>-61.8\u00b0C<\/b>.<\/p>\n<p>Note that these points are associated with the <a title=\"Atmospheric Pressure\" href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-pressure-physics\/atmospheric-pressure\/\">standard atmospheric pressure<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3>Radon &#8211;\u00a0Specific Heat, Latent Heat of Fusion, Latent Heat of Vaporization<\/h3>\n<p><strong>The Specific Heat of the Radon is <\/strong><b>0.09 J\/g K<\/b>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>The Latent Heat of the Fusion of Radon is <\/strong><b>2.89 kJ\/mol<\/b>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>The Latent Heat of Vaporization of Radon is <\/strong><b>16.4 kJ\/mol<\/b>.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-100 lgc-tablet-grid-100 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>References:<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">\n<p><strong>Radiation Protection:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Knoll, Glenn F., Radiation Detection and Measurement 4th Edition, Wiley, 8\/2010. ISBN-13: 978-0470131480.<\/li>\n<li>Stabin, Michael G., Radiation Protection and Dosimetry: An Introduction to Health Physics, Springer, 10\/2010. ISBN-13: 978-1441923912.<\/li>\n<li>Martin, James E., Physics for Radiation Protection 3rd Edition, Wiley-VCH, 4\/2013. ISBN-13: 978-3527411764.<\/li>\n<li>U.S.NRC, NUCLEAR REACTOR CONCEPTS<\/li>\n<li>U.S. Department of Energy, Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory. DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Volume 1 and 2. January 1993.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><strong>Nuclear and Reactor Physics:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>J. R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA (1983).<\/li>\n<li>J. R. Lamarsh, A. J. Baratta, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 3d ed., Prentice-Hall, 2001, ISBN: 0-201-82498-1.<\/li>\n<li>W. M. Stacey, Nuclear Reactor Physics, John Wiley &amp; Sons, 2001, ISBN: 0- 471-39127-1.<\/li>\n<li>Glasstone, Sesonske. Nuclear Reactor Engineering: Reactor Systems Engineering, Springer; 4th edition, 1994, ISBN: 978-0412985317<\/li>\n<li>W.S.C. Williams. Nuclear and Particle Physics. Clarendon Press; 1 edition, 1991, ISBN: 978-0198520467<\/li>\n<li>G.R.Keepin. Physics of Nuclear Kinetics. Addison-Wesley Pub. Co; 1st edition, 1965<\/li>\n<li>Robert Reed Burn, Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Operation, 1988.<\/li>\n<li>U.S. Department of Energy, Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory. DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Volume 1 and 2. January 1993.<\/li>\n<li>Paul Reuss, Neutron Physics. EDP Sciences, 2008. ISBN: 978-2759800414.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:15px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\"><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<h2>See above:<\/h2>\n<p>Sources<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/radiation-protection\/sources-of-radiation\/\" class=\"su-button su-button-style-flat\" style=\"color:#606060;background-color:#ffffff;border-color:#cccccc;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px\" target=\"_self\"><span style=\"color:#606060;padding:7px 20px;font-size:16px;line-height:24px;border-color:#ffffff;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px;text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-moz-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-webkit-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000\"><i class=\"sui sui-link\" style=\"font-size:16px;color:#5d5d5d\"><\/i> <\/span><\/a><\/p><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\"><\/div><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":25686,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"generate_page_header":""},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/25765"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=25765"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/25765\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":38004,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/25765\/revisions\/38004"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/25686"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=25765"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}