{"id":29179,"date":"2021-02-16T18:12:25","date_gmt":"2021-02-16T18:12:25","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/?page_id=29179"},"modified":"2023-08-17T10:42:15","modified_gmt":"2023-08-17T10:42:15","slug":"alloy-steel","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/metals-what-are-metals\/alloy-steel\/","title":{"rendered":"Alloy Steel"},"content":{"rendered":"<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-100 lgc-tablet-grid-100 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<p><strong>Steel<\/strong> is an alloy of iron and carbon. Still, the term <strong>alloy steel<\/strong> usually only refers to steels that contain other elements\u2014 like vanadium, molybdenum, or cobalt\u2014in amounts sufficient to alter the properties of the base steel. In general, <strong>alloy steel<\/strong> is alloyed with various elements in total amounts <strong>between 1.0% and 50%<\/strong> by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Stainless steels are a specific group of high-alloy steels that contain a minimum of 11% chromium content by mass and a maximum of 1.2% carbon by mass. Alloy steels are broken down into two groups:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/alloy-steels-composition.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignright wp-image-29162\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/alloy-steels-composition.png\" alt=\"Low-alloy steels\" width=\"518\" height=\"151\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/alloy-steels-composition.png 868w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/alloy-steels-composition-300x87.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/alloy-steels-composition-768x224.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 518px) 100vw, 518px\" \/><\/a>Low-alloy Steels<\/strong>. Low-alloy steels constitute a category of ferrous materials that exhibit mechanical properties superior to plain carbon steels resulting from additions of such alloying elements as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, manganese, and silicon. The role of the alloying elements is to <strong>increase hardenability<\/strong> to optimize mechanical properties and <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/materials-science\/material-properties\/toughness\/\">toughness<\/a> after heat treatment. However, alloy additions sometimes reduce environmental degradation under specified service conditions.<\/li>\n<li><strong>High-alloy Steels<\/strong>. Steels with alloying greater than 5 wt% are typically classified as high-alloy steel. <strong>Stainless steels<\/strong> are the major types of high-alloy steels, but two other types are <strong>ultrahigh-strength nickel-cobalt steels<\/strong> and <strong>maraging steels<\/strong>. Stainless steels are low-carbon high-alloy steels with at least 10.5% chromium with or without other alloying elements.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Special Reference: Metallurgy for the Non-metallurgist, 2nd Edition, ASM International. 450 pages, ISBN-10:1615038213.<\/p>\n<h2>Alloying Agents in Alloy Steels<\/h2>\n<p>Pure iron is too soft to be used for the purpose of structure, but adding small quantities of other elements (carbon, manganese, or silicon for instance) greatly increases its mechanical strength.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_29184\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-29184\" style=\"width: 290px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/chromoly-4150-alloy-steel.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-29184\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/chromoly-4150-alloy-steel-300x254.png\" alt=\"Chromoly steel\" width=\"300\" height=\"254\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/chromoly-4150-alloy-steel-300x254.png 300w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/chromoly-4150-alloy-steel.png 531w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-29184\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Chromoly 4150 &#8211; Tube<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/material-properties.org\/what-are-alloys-composition-properties-of-metal-alloys-definition\/\"><strong>Alloys<\/strong><\/a> are usually stronger than pure metals, although they generally offer reduced electrical and thermal conductivity. <a href=\"https:\/\/material-properties.org\/what-is-strength-definition\/\">Strength<\/a> is the most important criterion by which many structural materials are judged. Therefore, alloys are used for engineering construction. The synergistic effect of alloying elements and heat treatment produces various microstructures and properties.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Carbon. <\/strong>Carbon is a non-metallic element, an important alloying element in all ferrous metal-based materials. Carbon is always present in metallic alloys, i.e., in all grades of stainless steel and heat-resistant alloys. <strong>Carbon<\/strong> is a very strong austenitizing and increases the strength of steel. It is the principal hardening element essential to forming cementite, Fe<sub>3<\/sub>C, pearlite, spheroidite, and iron-carbon martensite. Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron trades its great ductility for greater strength. Suppose it combines chromium as a separate constituent (chromium carbide). In that case, it may have a detrimental effect on corrosion resistance by removing some of the chromium from the solid solution in the alloy and, consequently, reducing the amount of chromium available to ensure corrosion resistance.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Chromium. <\/strong>Chromium increases <strong><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/metals-what-are-metals\/steels-properties-of-steels\/hardness-of-steels\/\">hardness<\/a><\/strong>, <strong>strength<\/strong>, and <strong>corrosion resistance<\/strong>. The strengthening effect of forming stable metal carbides at the grain boundaries and the strong increase in corrosion resistance made chromium an important alloying material for steel. The resistance of these metallic alloys to the chemical effects of corrosive agents is based on passivation. For passivation to occur and remain stable, the Fe-Cr alloy must have a minimum chromium content of about 11% by weight, above which passivity can occur and below is impossible. Chromium can be used as a hardening element and is frequently used with a toughening element such as nickel to produce superior mechanical properties. At higher temperatures, chromium contributes to increased strength. The high-speed tool steels contain between 3 and 5% chromium, and it is ordinarily used for applications of this nature in conjunction with molybdenum.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Nickel. <\/strong>Nickel is one of the most common alloying elements. About 65% of nickel production is used in stainless steel. Because nickel does not form any carbide compounds in steel, it remains in solution in the ferrite, thus strengthening and toughening the ferrite phase. Nickel steels are easily heat treated because nickel lowers the critical cooling rate. Nickel-based alloys (e.g., Fe-Cr-Ni(Mo) alloys) exhibit excellent ductility and toughness, even at high strength levels and these properties are retained up to low temperatures. Nickel also reduces thermal expansion for better dimensional stability. Nickel is the base element for superalloys, a group of nickel, iron-nickel, and cobalt alloys used in jet engines. These metals have excellent resistance to thermal creep deformation and retain their stiffness, strength, toughness, and dimensional stability at temperatures much higher than the other aerospace structural materials.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Molybdenum<\/strong>. In small quantities in stainless steel, molybdenum increases hardenability and strength, particularly at <strong>high temperatures<\/strong>. The high melting point of molybdenum makes it important for giving strength to steel and other metallic alloys at high temperatures. Molybdenum is unique in the extent to which it increases steel\u2019s high-temperature tensile and creeps strengths. It retards the transformation of austenite to pearlite far more than the transformation of austenite to bainite; thus, bainite may be produced by continuous cooling of molybdenum-containing steels.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Vanadium<\/strong>. Vanadium is generally added to steel to inhibit <strong>grain growth<\/strong> during heat treatment. Controlling grain growth improves the strength and toughness of hardened and tempered steels.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Tungsten<\/strong>. Tungsten produces stable carbides and refines grain size to increase hardness, particularly at high temperatures. Tungsten is used extensively in <strong>high-speed tool steels<\/strong> and has been proposed as a substitute for molybdenum in reduced-activation ferritic steels for nuclear applications.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Low-alloy Steels<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Low-alloy steels<\/strong> constitute a category of ferrous materials that exhibit mechanical properties superior to plain carbon steels resulting from <strong>additions<\/strong> of such <strong>alloying elements<\/strong> as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, manganese, and silicon. The role of the alloying elements is to increase hardenability to optimize mechanical properties and toughness after heat treatment. However, alloy additions sometimes reduce environmental degradation under specified service conditions. Low-alloy steels may be classified into four major groups:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>low-carbon quenched and tempered (QT) steels<\/li>\n<li>medium-carbon ultrahigh-strength steels<\/li>\n<li>bearing steels<\/li>\n<li>heat-resistant chromium-molybdenum steels<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly Steel &#8211; Medium-carbon Ultrahigh-strength Steels<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Chromoly steel<\/strong> is a medium-carbon ultrahigh-strength low alloy steel that gets its name from the words \u201cchromium\u201d and \u201cmolybdenum\u201d \u2013 two of the major alloying elements. Chromoly steel is often used when more <a href=\"https:\/\/material-properties.org\/what-is-strength-definition\/\">strength<\/a> is required than that mild carbon steel, though it often comes at an increase in cost. Chromoly falls under the <strong>AISI 41xx steel<\/strong> designations (ASTM A519). Examples of applications for 4130, 4140, and 4145 include structural tubing, bicycle frames, crankshafts, chain links, drill collars, gas bottles for transporting pressurized gases, firearm parts, clutch and flywheel components, and roll cages.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/low-alloy-steel-4150-composition.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-29155\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/low-alloy-steel-4150-composition.png\" alt=\"Chromoly steel\" width=\"651\" height=\"81\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/low-alloy-steel-4150-composition.png 651w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/02\/low-alloy-steel-4150-composition-300x37.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 651px) 100vw, 651px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Properties of 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly Steel<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Material properties<\/strong> are <strong>intensive properties<\/strong>, which means they are <strong>independent of the amount<\/strong> of mass and may vary from place to place within the system at any moment. Materials science involves studying materials\u2019 structure and relating them to their properties (mechanical, electrical, etc.). Once materials scientist knows about this structure-property correlation, they can then go on to study the relative performance of a material in a given application. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and how it has been processed into its final form.<\/p>\n<h3>Mechanical Properties of 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly Steel<\/h3>\n<p>Materials are frequently chosen for various applications because they have desirable combinations of mechanical characteristics. For structural applications, material properties are crucial, and engineers must consider them.<\/p>\n<h3>Strength of 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly Steel<\/h3>\n<p>In the mechanics of materials, the <a href=\"https:\/\/material-properties.org\/what-is-strength-definition\/\"><strong>strength of a material<\/strong><\/a> is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic deformation. The <strong>strength\u00a0of materials<\/strong> considers the relationship between the <strong>external loads<\/strong> applied to a material and the resulting <strong>deformation<\/strong> or change in material dimensions. The <strong>strength\u00a0of a material<\/strong> is its ability to withstand this applied load without failure or plastic deformation.<\/p>\n<h3>Ultimate Tensile Strength<\/h3>\n<p>The ultimate tensile strength of 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly steel depends on a certain grade, but it is about 700 MPa.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/Yield-Strength-Ultimate-Tensile-Strength-Table-of-Materials.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-27807\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/Yield-Strength-Ultimate-Tensile-Strength-Table-of-Materials-239x300.png\" alt=\"Yield Strength - Ultimate Tensile Strength - Table of Materials\" width=\"239\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/Yield-Strength-Ultimate-Tensile-Strength-Table-of-Materials-239x300.png 239w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/Yield-Strength-Ultimate-Tensile-Strength-Table-of-Materials.png 349w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 239px) 100vw, 239px\" \/><\/a>The <a href=\"https:\/\/material-properties.org\/what-is-ultimate-tensile-strength-uts-definition\/\"><strong>ultimate tensile strength<\/strong><\/a> is the maximum on the engineering <a href=\"https:\/\/material-properties.org\/what-is-stress-strain-curve-stress-strain-diagram-definition\/\">stress-strain curve<\/a>. This corresponds to the<strong> maximum stress<\/strong> sustained by a structure in tension. Ultimate tensile strength is often shortened to \u201ctensile strength\u201d or \u201cthe ultimate.\u201d If this stress is applied and maintained, a fracture will result. Often, this value is significantly more than the yield stress (as much as 50 to 60 percent more than the yield for some types of metals). When a ductile material reaches its ultimate strength, it experiences necking where the cross-sectional area reduces locally. The stress-strain curve contains no higher stress than the ultimate strength. Even though deformations can continue to increase, the stress usually decreases after achieving the ultimate strength. It is an intensive property; therefore, its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, it depends on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the <strong>temperature<\/strong> of the test environment and material. <strong>Ultimate tensile strengths<\/strong> vary from 50 MPa for aluminum to as high as 3000 MPa for very high-strength steel.<\/p>\n<h3>Yield Strength<\/h3>\n<p>The yield strength of 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly steel depends on a certain grade, but it is about 500 MPa.<\/p>\n<p>The <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/materials-science\/material-properties\/strength\/stress-strain-curve-stress-strain-diagram\/yield-strength-yield-point\/\"><strong>yield point<\/strong><\/a> is the point on a <a href=\"https:\/\/material-properties.org\/what-is-stress-strain-curve-stress-strain-diagram-definition\/\">stress-strain curve<\/a> that indicates the limit of elastic behavior and the beginning plastic behavior. <strong>Yield strength<\/strong> or yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins. Before the yield point, the material will deform elastically and return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible. Some steels and other materials exhibit a behavior termed a yield point phenomenon. Yield strengths vary from 35 MPa for low-strength aluminum to greater than 1400 MPa for high-strength steel.<\/p>\n<h3>Young\u2019s Modulus of Elasticity<\/h3>\n<p>Young\u2019s modulus of elasticity 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly steel is 205 GPa.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/material-properties.org\/what-is-youngs-modulus-of-elasticity-definition\/\">Young\u2019s modulus of elasticity<\/a> is the elastic modulus for tensile and compressive stress in the linear elasticity regime of a uniaxial deformation and is usually assessed by tensile tests. Up to limiting stress, a body will be able to recover its dimensions on the removal of the load. The applied stresses cause the atoms in a crystal to move from their equilibrium position, and all the <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-power\/reactor-physics\/atomic-nuclear-physics\/atom-properties-of-atoms\/\">atoms<\/a> are displaced the same amount and maintain their relative geometry. When the stresses are removed, all the atoms return to their original positions, and no permanent deformation occurs. According to <strong><a href=\"https:\/\/material-properties.org\/what-is-hookes-law-definition\/\">Hooke\u2019s law<\/a>, <\/strong>the stress is proportional to the strain (in the elastic region), and the slope is <strong>Young\u2019s modulus<\/strong>. Young\u2019s modulus is equal to the longitudinal stress divided by the strain.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/Hookes-law-equation.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-27811\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/Hookes-law-equation.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"320\" height=\"164\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/Hookes-law-equation.png 320w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/Hookes-law-equation-300x154.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 320px) 100vw, 320px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>The hardness of 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly Steel<\/h2>\n<p>Brinell hardness of 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly steel is approximately 200 MPa.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/table-brinell-hardness-numbers.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignright size-full wp-image-28044\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/table-brinell-hardness-numbers.png\" alt=\"Brinell hardness number\" width=\"288\" height=\"297\" \/><\/a>In materials science, <a href=\"https:\/\/material-properties.org\/what-is-hardness-definition\/\"><strong>hardness<\/strong><\/a> is the ability to withstand <strong>surface indentation<\/strong> (<strong>localized plastic deformation<\/strong>) and <strong>scratching<\/strong>. <strong>Hardness<\/strong> is probably the most poorly defined material property because it may indicate resistance to scratching, abrasion, indentation, or even resistance to shaping or localized plastic deformation. Hardness is important from an engineering standpoint because resistance to wear by either friction or erosion by steam, oil, and water generally increases with hardness.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/materials-science\/material-properties\/hardness\/brinell-hardness-test\/\"><strong>Brinell hardness test<\/strong><\/a> is one of the indentation hardness tests developed for hardness testing. In Brinell tests, a hard, <strong>spherical indenter<\/strong> is forced under a specific load into the surface of the metal to be tested. The typical test uses a 10 mm (0.39 in) diameter <strong>hardened steel ball<\/strong> as an indenter with a 3,000 kgf (29.42 kN; 6,614 lbf) force. The load is maintained constant for a specified time (between 10 and 30 s). For softer materials, a smaller force is used; for harder materials, a <strong>tungsten carbide ball<\/strong> is substituted for the steel ball.<\/p>\n<p>The test provides numerical results to quantify the hardness of a material, which is expressed by the <strong>Brinell hardness number<\/strong> \u2013 <strong>HB<\/strong>. The Brinell hardness number is designated by the most commonly used test standards (ASTM E10-14[2] and ISO 6506\u20131:2005) as HBW (H from hardness, B from Brinell, and W from the material of the indenter, tungsten (wolfram) carbide). In former standards, HB or HBS were used to refer to measurements made with steel indenters.<\/p>\n<p>The <strong>Brinell hardness number<\/strong> (HB) is the load divided by the surface area of the indentation. The diameter of the impression is measured with a microscope with a superimposed scale. The Brinell hardness number is computed from the equation:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/brinell-hardness-number-definition.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-28042\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/brinell-hardness-number-definition.png\" alt=\"Brinell hardness test\" width=\"320\" height=\"190\" srcset=\"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/brinell-hardness-number-definition.png 320w, https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/11\/brinell-hardness-number-definition-300x178.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 320px) 100vw, 320px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>There are various test methods in common use (e.g., Brinell, <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/materials-science\/material-properties\/hardness\/knoop-hardness-test-knoop-hardness-number\/\">Knoop<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/materials-science\/material-properties\/hardness\/vickers-hardness-test-vickers-hardness-number\/\">Vickers<\/a>, and <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/materials-science\/material-properties\/hardness\/rockwell-hardness-test\/\">Rockwell<\/a>). Some tables correlate the hardness numbers from the different test methods where correlation is applicable. In all scales, a high hardness number represents a hard metal.<\/p>\n<h2>Thermal Properties of 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly Steel<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Thermal properties<\/strong>\u00a0of materials refer to the response of materials to changes in their\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/thermodynamic-properties\/what-is-temperature-physics\/\">temperature<\/a> and to the application of <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/heat-transfer\/introduction-to-heat-transfer\/heat-in-physics-definition-of-heat\/\">heat<\/a>. As a solid absorbs <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/thermodynamics\/what-is-energy-physics\/\">energy<\/a> in the form of heat, its temperature rises, and its dimensions increase. But <strong>different materials react<\/strong> to the application of heat <strong>differently<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/materials-science\/material-properties\/thermal-properties-of-materials\/specific-heat-capacity-of-materials\/\">Heat capacity<\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/materials-science\/material-properties\/thermal-properties-of-materials\/coefficient-of-thermal-expansion-of-materials\/\">thermal expansion<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.thermal-engineering.org\/what-is-thermal-conductivity-definition\/\">thermal conductivity<\/a> are often critical in solids\u2019 practical use.<\/p>\n<h3>Melting Point of 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly Steel<\/h3>\n<p>The melting point of 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly steel is around 1427\u00b0C.<\/p>\n<p>In general,\u00a0<strong>melting<\/strong>\u00a0is a\u00a0<strong>phase change<\/strong> of a substance from the solid to the liquid phase. The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/material-properties.org\/melting-point-of-chemical-elements\/\"><strong>melting point<\/strong><\/a> of a substance is the temperature at which this phase change occurs. The\u00a0<strong>melting point\u00a0<\/strong>also defines a condition where the solid and liquid can exist in equilibrium.<\/p>\n<h3>Thermal Conductivity of 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly Steel<\/h3>\n<p>The thermal conductivity of 41xx steel \u2013 Chromoly steel is around 41 W\/(m. K).<\/p>\n<p>The heat transfer characteristics of solid material are measured by a property called the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.thermal-engineering.org\/what-is-thermal-conductivity-definition\/\"><strong>thermal conductivity<\/strong><\/a>, k (or \u03bb), measured in\u00a0<strong>W\/m.K<\/strong>. It is a measure of a substance\u2019s ability to transfer heat through a material by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.thermal-engineering.org\/what-is-thermal-conduction-heat-conduction-definition\/\">conduction<\/a>. Note that <a href=\"https:\/\/www.thermal-engineering.org\/what-is-fouriers-law-of-thermal-conduction-definition\/\"><strong>Fourier\u2019s law<\/strong><\/a> applies to all matter, regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas). Therefore, it is also defined for liquids and gases.<\/p>\n<p>The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.thermal-engineering.org\/what-is-thermal-conductivity-definition\/\"><strong>thermal conductivity<\/strong><\/a> of most liquids and solids varies with temperature, and for vapors, it also depends upon pressure. In general:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/10\/thermal-conductivity-definition.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-20041\" src=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/10\/thermal-conductivity-definition.png\" alt=\"thermal conductivity - definition\" width=\"225\" height=\"75\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Most materials are nearly homogeneous. Therefore we can usually write <strong>k = k (T)<\/strong>. Similar definitions are associated with thermal conductivities in the y- and z-directions (ky, kz), but for an isotropic material, the thermal conductivity is independent of the direction of transfer, kx = ky = kz = k.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-100 lgc-tablet-grid-100 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-accordion su-u-trim\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler su-spoiler-style-default su-spoiler-icon-plus su-spoiler-closed\" data-scroll-offset=\"0\"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-title\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\"><span class=\"su-spoiler-icon\"><\/span>References:<\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-spoiler-content su-u-clearfix su-u-trim\">Materials Science:\n<p>U.S. Department of Energy, Material Science. DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Volume 1 and 2. January 1993.<br \/>\nU.S. Department of Energy, Material Science. DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Volume 2 and 2. January 1993.<br \/>\nWilliam D. Callister, David G. Rethwisch. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction 9th Edition, Wiley; 9 edition (December 4, 2013), ISBN-13: 978-1118324578.<br \/>\nEberhart, Mark (2003). Why Things Break: Understanding the World by the Way It Comes Apart. Harmony. ISBN 978-1-4000-4760-4.<br \/>\nGaskell, David R. (1995). Introduction to the Thermodynamics of Materials (4th ed.). Taylor and Francis Publishing. ISBN 978-1-56032-992-3.<br \/>\nGonz\u00e1lez-Vi\u00f1as, W. &amp; Mancini, H.L. (2004). An Introduction to Materials Science. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07097-1.<br \/>\nAshby, Michael; Hugh Shercliff; David Cebon (2007). Materials: engineering, science, processing, and design (1st ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-8391-3.<br \/>\nJ. R. Lamarsh, A. J. Baratta, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 3d ed., Prentice-Hall, 2001, ISBN: 0-201-82498-1.<br \/>\n<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-dotted\" style=\"margin:15px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"    class=\"su-divider su-divider-style-default\" style=\"margin:15px 0;border-width:2px;border-color:#999999\"><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\"><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\">\n<p>See above:<br \/>\nMetals<a href=\"http:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/nuclear-engineering\/metals-what-are-metals\/\" class=\"su-button su-button-style-flat\" style=\"color:#606060;background-color:#ffffff;border-color:#cccccc;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px\" target=\"_self\"><span style=\"color:#606060;padding:7px 20px;font-size:16px;line-height:24px;border-color:#ffffff;border-radius:10px;-moz-border-radius:10px;-webkit-border-radius:10px;text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-moz-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000;-webkit-text-shadow:0px 0px 0px #000000\"><i class=\"sui sui-link\" style=\"font-size:16px;color:#5d5d5d\"><\/i> <\/span><\/a><\/p><\/div><\/div><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"lgc-column lgc-grid-parent lgc-grid-33 lgc-tablet-grid-33 lgc-mobile-grid-100 lgc-equal-heights \"><div   id="8n9s8rpp6h"     class=\"inside-grid-column\"><\/div><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":28829,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"generate_page_header":""},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/29179"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=29179"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/29179\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":39106,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/29179\/revisions\/39106"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/28829"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/sitepourvtc.com\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=29179"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}